Wachemo University

and Technology
Ababa institute college
of Technology

Lecture Materials of HYDRAULICS-II for Civil ENGINEERING

School of civil & Construction Engineering

Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

prepared By
Engineering

Lecturer: Aklilu M.
Addis

Contact address: Aklilumega2020@gmail.com

02/21/2023
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 Outlines
Chapter One: Introduction to Open Channel Flow
1.1 Types of Flow in Open Channel
1.2 Uniform Flow in Open Channel
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1.3 Channel of Efficient Cross-section

1.4 Energy & Momentum Principles in Open Channel Flow
1.5 The Hydraulic Jump
Chapter Two: Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
2.1 Dimensional Analysis
2.2 Dimensional Homogeneity
2.3 Methods of Dimensional Analysis
2.4 Model Analysis & Similitude
Chapter Three: Closed Conduit Flow
3.1 Pipe Friction Formula, Laminar & Turbulent Flow
3.2 Pipes in Series, Parallel and Branching pipes
3.3 Network of Pipes
3.4 Introduction to Water Hammer Analysis
Chapter Four: Hydraulic Machines
4.1 Pump Types
4.2 Turbine Types
4.3 Head on Pumps and Turbines
4.4 Specific Speed of Pumps and Turbines
4.5 Performance of Pumps and Turbines 02/21/2023
4.6 Cavitation
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 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Introduction to Open Channel Flow
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 1. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Introduction
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 The term ‘hydraulics’ is related to the application of the Fluid

Mechanics principles to water engineering structures, civil and
environmental engineering facilities, especially hydraulic structures
 E.g. canal, river, dam, reservoir and water treatment plant
 Hydraulics is deals with occurrence, movement, and use of water for
the benefit of society,
 Water is delivered to the user either in:-
 closed conduits/ flow through the pipes or
 open channels.
 In this chapter, we consider open channels in which liquid (i.e. water)
flows with a free surface.
 The selecting and sizing of these conveyance structures requires sound
understanding of:-
 continuity equation,
 principle of conservation of momentum, and energy and their application.

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 Cont...,
What is open channel?...
 A passage in which liquid flows with its upper surface exposed to the constant pressure
(atm. pressure).
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 Open channel flow involves the flows of a liquid in a channel or conduit that is not
completely filled.
 May occur regardless of the type of conduit in w/c it is occurring
 i.e. an open channel may occur in a pipe, if it is partially flowing

 Simply stated, Open channel flow is a flow of liquid in a conduit with free space
 There exists a free surface between the flowing fluid (usually water) and fluid above it
(usually the atmosphere). 02/21/2023
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 CONT..
 The main deriving force is the fluid weight-gravity forces the fluid to
flow downhill, thus the flow conditions are greatly influenced by the
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slope of the channel.

 The water surface will be concide with the HGL

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 OPEN CHANNEL vs PIPE FLOW

ASPECTS OPEN CHANNEL PIPE FLOW

Cause of flow Gravity (provided by sloping The pipe runs full & the flow takes
bottom) place at the expense of hydraulic
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Geometry of Have any shape (rectangular,
cross-section triangular, trapezoidal,
circular... etc.)
Surface Varies with wide limits
roughness The hydraulic roughness
varies with depth of flow
Piezometric head (z + y), y = depth of flow.
HGL coincides with the WS.
Velocity The maximum velocity occurs
distribution at a little distance below the
WS.
The shape of the velocity
profile is dependent on the
channel roughness.
Specific Exposed to atmospheric
Boundary pressure
conditions
Design More complex
pressure
Pipe are around in cross-section
Cross-section of flow is fixed since
flowing liquid fills pipe section
Roughness coefficient varies
depending on pipe materials
(Z + P/W), P = pressure in the pipe
HGL doesn’t coincides with WS
symmetrical about the pipe axis,
maximum velocity occurring at the
pipe Centre and the velocity at the
pipe wall reducing to zero
Covered or confined by solid
boundary
Relatively simple
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 Open Channel Design Concepts

 Interest to engineers:
 Water surface elevation (WSE)
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(minimize impact/reduce floods)

 Discharge – Depth relationships

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 Channel design fixing the geometry

of the channel such as
institute

 width,
 water depth,
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 bed slope,
 roughness coefficient
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 Types of Channels
 Natural channels:
 These channels naturally exist without the influence of human beings/in a natural way
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 The surface roughness will often change with time distance and even elevation
E.g. Rivers /streams
 Artificial channels:
 Such channels are formed by man’s activity for various purposes.
 E.g. Cannel, Flumes, Culvert, Chute.. Etc.
 They are usually constructed in a regular cross-section shape throughout- and are thus prismatic
channels.
 Prismatic channel: -
a channel
 Channels with constant bed slope and the same cross-section along its length.
 They don’t widen or get narrower along the channel
 Non-prismatic channels: -
 Channels with varying shape and slope
 Irregular in shape, alignment & roughness of the surface
 Open channel:-
 A channel without any cover at the top
Closed channel:-
 The channel has a cover at the top

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General
Characteristics of
Open Channel Flow

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 Classification of Open-Channel Flow
 For open-channel flow, the existence of a free surface
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allows additional types of flow

 The extra freedom that allows the fluid to select its free-
surface location and configuration allows important
phenomena in open channel flow that cannot occur in pipe
flow.
 The fluid depth, y, varies with time, t, and distance along
the channel, x, are used to classify open-channel flow

Only possible in
prismatic channel 02/21/2023
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 cont.…
Time is criterion=Temporal
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Space is criteria= spatial

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 Geometric Elements of Open Channel Section

 Depth of flow (Y):

 The vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to the free surface
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 Depth of flow Section (d) or stage(h)

 It is the depth of flow normal to bed of the channel
 is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.

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 Cont…
 Top width (T):
 it is the width of channel section at free surface.
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 Wetted perimeter (p):

 it is the length of the channel boundary which is in contact with water.
 Wetted area (A):
 is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of flow.
 Hydraulic radius (hydraulic mean depth)(R)
 it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted perimeter

R
 Hydraulic depth(D):
 the ratio of wetted area to the top width,
D

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Engineering and Technology college Cont…

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 Uniform flow in open channel
 Uniform flow can occur in long straight run of constant slope and
channel cross section.
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 For uniform flow in open channels, the following governing equations

are very important.
Chezy’s equation
Manning’s equation
 Chezy’s Formula
Consider a longitudinal section of an open channel in w/c the flow is steady
and uniform as shown below.

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 Uniform flow in open channel
Where S0- bed slope of channel W – Weight of water
0 – Shear force L- Length of channel
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Sw- Water surface slope S- Slope of EGL

(i) Pressure forces F1 and F2 acting on the two ends of the body; these forces balance each
other since the depth of channel remains constant.
(ii) The component of weight of the water in the direction of flow, which is

where, w = Specific weight of water,

A = Wetted cross-sectional area of channel,
L = Length of the channel considered, and
θ = Angle of inclination of channel bottom with the horizontal.

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 Uniform Flow in open channel and it’s GOVERNING
Equations
Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force
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Wsin =  o .P.L……………………………………….………….(1)

A L sin =  o .P.L, but, sin  = hf/L = S,

Solving for  o ,
A
 o = .S  R.S …………………………………….………… (2)
P
- Specific /unit weight of the water
The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity, or
o= kV2…………………………………..……..….... (3)
Where k is non dimensional factor whose value depends upon material and nature of flow surface.
Therefore, KV2=RS
 
V2 = RS Let  C 2 - constant (b/c  and k - are constants)
k k
V  C RS. … Chezy equation ………………………………..……….... (4)
C= chezy coefficient (chezy’s resistance factor)
V= Average velocity of flow
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 Engineering and Technology college Cont..

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 Manning’s equation
 Rober Manning (an Irish engineer) gave the following empirical
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relation for determination of Chezy’s constant C (1889), which is

simplest of all used for uniform open channel flow:
1 2 1
V= R 3 S0 2 ………………………………………………………...(5)
n
The best as well as most widely used formula for uniformly for uniform flow.
Where n- Is the manning’s constant also known as roughness or rugosity coefficient.
A relation between the Chezy’s C and Manning’s n may be obtained by comparing eqn (4) & (5)
1

R6

C …………………………………………..(6)
n
The value of n ranges from 0.009 (for smooth straight surfaces) to 0.22 (for very dense flood plain
forests).

 The discharge through the channel

Q= AV
1
Q = A R S0
2 1
3 2

n
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 Examples on uniform flow in open channel
1. Example 1:
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A rectangular channel is to be dug in the rocky portion of a soil. Find its

most economical cross-section if it is to convey 12m 3/s of water with an
average velocity of 3 m/s. Take Chezy’s constant C = 50.

II . Example 2:
A canal of trapezoidal section has bed slope of 1 in 4000. if the depth of
flow is 2.4m and side slope of the channel are one horizontal to three
vertical. Determine the average flow velocity and discharge carried by the
canal. Also compute the average shear stress at the channel boundary.
Take value of Chezy's constant C=55 and rugosity coefficient is 0.014 for
the channel surface.

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 The most Economical (Hydraulic Efficient) Section of a Channel
 A channel section is said to be efficient if it gives or can pass maximum discharge
for a given cross sectional area and when the cost of construction is minimum.
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 The most economical section (also called the best section or most efficient
section) is one which gives the maximum discharge for a given amount of
excavation and lining.
 To keep cost of construction and lining min, the wetted perimeter for a given
discharge should be minimum.
 From continuity equation it is evident that discharge is maximum when velocity is
maximum, the area of cross section of channel remaining constant. Q=AV
 From Chezy’s formula and Manning’s formula it can be seen that for a given value
of slope and surface roughness the velocity of flow will be maximum if hydraulic
radius R is maximum,
 The velocity in an open channel is a function of:
V= f(R, S)…………………………… (a)
Q = A*V= A.f(R, S)……………….…. (b)
Equation (b) indicates that for the given area of cross-section & slope,
The discharge Q will be maximum, when R – is maximum.
Since, R= A/P,
R will be maximum when P- is minimum for a given area.
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 The Most Economical Rectangular Channel Section

For economical rectangular section…

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 The Most Economical Rectangular Channel Section
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Example1: A rectangular channel is to be dug in the rocky portion of a

soil. Find its most economical cross-section if it is to convey 12 m3/s of
water with an average velocity of 3m/s. Take Chezy’s constant C = 50.
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 The Most Economical trapezoidal section

 The cross-section of a trapezoidal channel

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 Engineering and Technology college Cont..

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 The Most Economical trapezoidal section

d
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Example 2: A power canal of trapezoidal section has to be excavated

through hard clay at least cost. Determine the dimensions of the channel,
given discharge equal to 14m3/s, bed slope 1:2500 and manning’s n=0.02.

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 SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE

 Specific energy
 is defined as the energy per unit weight of flowing liquid above the channel bottom.
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Specific energy, Es,

 is also defined as the energy of the flow with reference to the channel bed as the datum.
 The concept of specific energy was first introduced by Bakmenteff (1918).
 datum coincides with the channel bed at the cross-section
 very useful in defining critical water depth and in the analysis of
open channel flow
 total energy in a real fluid flow always decreases in the downstream
direction, the specific energy is constant for a uniform flow
 The total energy of flow per unit weight of liquid is given by:

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 SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE
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 Critical depth

For a given discharge, the SE can be calculated for various flow

depths including critical depth
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 Depth of flow for a given discharge, where the specific energy is at a

minimum
 Occurs when dE/dy = 0 and Fr = 1
 It is important to calculate yc in order to determine if the flow in the
channel will be subcritical or supercritical
 Can be found through Specific Energy Diagram

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 SPECIFIC ENERGY AND SPECIFIC ENERGY CURVE

Critical velocity, Vc
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The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity

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 cont..!!
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Critical flow:
 A critical flow is one in which specific energy is minimum.
 A flow corresponding to critical depth, Yc

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 Hydraulic Jump
 In an open channel when rapidly flowing stream abruptly changes to
slowly flowing stream, a distinct rise or jump in the elevation of liquid
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surface takes place,

 This phenomenon is known as hydraulic jump.
 A flow phenomenon which occurs when supercritical flow has its
velocity reduced to subcritical.
 There is sudden rise in water level at the point where hydraulic jump
occurs.

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 Purposes of Hydraulic Jump

 Hydraulic jump usually maintains the high water level on

the downstream side of hydraulic structures.
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 To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward

force due to the increased depth of water
 To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing
the effective head causing flow
 Usually the hydraulic jump reverses the flow of water. This
phenomenon can be used to mix chemicals for water
purification
 Hydraulic jump can be used to remove the air from water
supply and sewage lines to prevent the air locking.
 It prevents the scouring action on the downstream side of
the dam structure.
 Energy Dissipater
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 Analysis of hydraulic jump
Assumptions
 The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due
to friction is negligible,
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 The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope.

The weight component in the direction of flow is negligible.
 The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken
as a control volume &
 The flow is uniform & pressure distribution is hydrostatic, the just
before & after the control volume.

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 .

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COVID!!

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