Cementing: Lecture 1

Fundamentals

of

Cementing Operations
 Functions of Cement in Wells
• Cementing is the process by which cement slurry is placed in
the annulus, bonding the casing to the formation
• The conventional method of doing this is to pump cement
down the casing and displace it around the casing shoe into
the annulus
• A good cement job is essential to allow further drilling and
production operations to proceed
Cementing Operation
 Components of Cementing Operation
Float shoe
A float shoe prevents cement from flowing back into the casing once
the cement is displaced behind the casing. Shoes have either inner
parts made of aluminum or cement; both being easily drillable,
with the advantage that cement is more resistant to impact.

Float Collar
A float collar is a one way valve placed at one or two joints above the
shoe. The float collar provides the same functions as a float shoe
by preventing fluid back flow into the casing: mud backflow during
running in hole and cement slurry backflow after cement
displacement. The distance between the shoe and float collar is
called Shoe Track.

Wiper Plugs
Both top and bottom plugs are used during cementing operations.
They are used to separate the various fluids from one another.
Bottom Plug
The red bottom plug has a shallow top, is made of rubber, and has a
hollow core. It is used ahead of the cement slurry to prevent
cement/drilling fluid contamination and to clean the casing wall of
filter cake. After the bottom plug comes into contact with the float
valve, sufficient pressure (150 to 350 psi) causes the top diaphragm
to rupture, allowing the cement slurry to flow through it.

Top Plug
The black top plug has a deep cup on its top and has a solid, molded
rubber core. It is dropped after the cement slurry has been pumped,
to prevent contamination with the displacement fluid. The top plug
also signals the end of displacement by forming a seal on top of the
bottom plug, causing a pressure increase.

The main functions of cement plugs are:

• Separate mud from cement
• Wipe the casing from mud before cement is pumped and then wipe
casing from
th cement film after the complete volume of cement is pumped.
• Prevent over-displacement of cement
• Give surface indication that cement placement is complete
• Allow the casing to be pressure tested
 Bumping the Plug
The bottom plug is first released and is followed by cement. When
the bottom plug lands on the float collar a pressure increase on
surface is indicated. A small increase in pressure will rupture the
bottom plug and allow cement to flow through it, through float
collar, shoe track, casing shoe and then around the casing.

The top plug is released from surface immediately after the total
volume of cement is pumped. The top plug is displaced by the
drilling fluid and it, in turn, pushes the cement slurry into the
annulus.

When the top plug lands on the bottom plug a pressure increase is
observed at surface. This is called bumping the plug. Bumping
indicates that the total volume of cement is now displaced behind
the casing. Usually, at this time, the casing is pressure tested to a
precalculated design value to check its integrity. Pressure testing
casing while the cement is still wet is recommended as this
reduces the chances of breaking the set cement or creating micro-
channels if the test is carried out a few hours later when the
cement sets.
 Washes & Spacers
Pre- Flush
In any successful primary cementing operation the cement slurry
must displace the fluid surrounding the casing. Mud and cement are
often incompatible and contact between them can lead to severe
channelling or the formation of an un-pumpable viscous mass. To
avoid this problem an intermediate fluid is used as a pre-flush to
clean the drilling mud from the annulus.
The simplest form of pre-flush is a 'wash' - usually water, with the
possible addition of a surfactant. Such a pre-flush is very effective in
removing mud from the annulus as turbulence can be achieved
around the complete annulus.

Spacers
Spacers are difficult fluids to design. They must be compatible with
both mud and cement and have the correct rheological properties to
minimise mixing and channelling. Although weighted spacers can
theoretically achieve turbulence, care must be exercised in assuming
that turbulence will occur beneath eccentric casing, in the narrow
section of the annulus. If laminar flow exists beneath the casing and
turbulent flow above, channelling will result.
 The most important functions of the
initial or primary cement job are:

• To support the casing string;

• To prevent the movement of fluids from one formation to
another through the annulus;
• To protect the casing from corrosive fluids in the
formations

The cement slurry is able to meet these requirements by

providing adequate compressive strength and low
permeability when the cement hardens. The critical factor in
obtaining a satisfactory cement job is to place the cement
completely around the casing to prevent channelling
A secondary or squeeze cement job ..

may have to be done at a later stage to carry

out some remedial work on the well (eg, sealing
off certain zones, repairing casing leaks). This
involves forcing cement through holes or
perforations in the casing into the annulus and
formation. Like this …..
 Planning the cement job
Each cement job must be carefully planned to ensure that
the correct cement and additives are being used, and that
a suitable placement technique is being employed for that
particular application:
• The cement can be placed correctly using the equipment
available;
• The cement will achieve adequate compressive strength
soon after it is placed;
• The cement will thereafter isolate zones and support the
casing throughout the life of the well
 Classification of Cement

Compounds (a)
There are several classes of cement
API Class C3S C2S C3A C4AF CaSO Fineness
approved by% the % API. %The differences
% % Sq cm/Gram
between
A the
53 cements
24 lie
8 in the
8 distribution
3.5 1600-1900
of theB five basic
44 compounds,
32 5 12which
2.9are 1500-1900
usedC to make 53 cement:
16 8C3S, 8C2S, C3A,
4.1 2000-2400
C4AF,
D & E CaSO4.
50 26 5 13 3.0 1200-1500
G 52 27 3 12 3.2 1400-1600
H 52 25 5 12 3.3 1400-1600
• Classes A and B: These cements are generally cheaper
than other classes of cement and can only be used at
shallow depths where there are no special requirements.
Note: Class B has a higher resistance to sulphate than
Class A
• Class C: This cement has a high C3S content and so
produces a high early strength
• Classes D, E and F: These are known as retarded cements
due to a coarser grind, or the inclusion of organic retarders
(lignosulphonates). Their increased cost must be justified
by their ability to work satisfactorily in deep wells at higher
temperatures and pressures
• Class G and H: These are general purpose cements which
are compatible with most additives and can be used over a
wide range of temperature and pressure. Class G is the
most common type of cement used in most areas. Class H
has a coarser grind than Class G and gives better retarding
properties in deeper wells
 Other types of cement not covered by the API
specification include:
• Pozmix cement - formed by mixing Portland cement with
pozzolan (ground volcanic ash) and 2% bentonite. Very
durable & less expensive than most other types;
• Gypsum cement - formed by mixing Portland cement
with gypsum, giving a high early strength and can be
used for remedial work. They expand on setting and
deteriorate in the presence of water;
• Diesel oil cement - a mixture of one of the basic cement
classes (A, B, G, H) with diesel oil or kerosene with a
surfactant. They have unlimited setting times and will
only set in the presence of water. Consequently they are
often used to seal off water producing zones where they
absorb and set to form a dense, hard cement
 Mixwater Requirements

API Cement Classification

Following tabulated figures are based on:

API Class
• The need to have a Mixing
slurry
Water
Slurry
that is
Wt.
Well Depth
easily pumped;
(a)
Static
Temp
• A minimum amountGals/Sk of free water
Lbs/Gal Ft deg F
A (Portland) 5.2 15.6 0-6000 80-170

Effects of reducing the

B (Portland) 5.2 amount15.6of mixwater:
0-6000 80-170

• Slurry density,
C (High Early) compressive
6.3 strength,
14.8 and viscosity
0-6000 will all
80-170
increase;
D (Retarded) 4.3 16.4 6-10000 170-230
• Pumpability
E (Retarded)will decrease;
4.3 16.4 6-14000 170-290
• Less Fvolume
(Retarded) of slurry
4.3will be obtained
16.4 from
10-16000each sack
230-320of
cement
G (Basic – Calif) 5.0 15.8 0-8000 80-200
H (Basic – Gulf 4.3 16.4 0-8000 80-200
Coast)
 Properties – Compressive Strength
To support the casing string a compressive strength of 500 psi is
generally thought to be adequate (includes a generous safety
factor). The casing shoe should not be drilled out until this
strength has been attained - referred to as ‘waiting on cement’
(or WOC)
Development of compressive strength is a function of several
variables:
• temperature
• pressure
• amount of mixwater
• elapsed time since mixing
With proper accelerators added - the WOC time may be reduced to
3-6 hours. Following table shows some typical compressive
strengths for different cements under varying conditions
 Compressive Strength
Temperature Pressure Typical compressive strength (psi) at 24 hours
deg F (psi)
Class A & B High API API Retarded
Portland early clas clas class
streng sG sH
th D,E,F
class C
60 0 615 780 440 325 -
80 0 1,470 1,870 1,185 1,065
95 800 2,085 2,015 2,540 2,110
110 1,600 2,925 2,705 2,915 2,525
140 3,000 5,050 3,560 4,200 3,160 3,045
170 3,000 5,920 3,710 4,830 4,485 4,150
200 3,000 - - 5,110 4,575 4,775

Compressive Strength
Temperature Pressure Typical compressive strength (psi) at 72 hours
deg F (psi)
60 0 2,870 2,535 - - -
80 0 4,130 3,935 - - -
95 800 4,670 4,105 - - -
110 1,600 5,840 4,780 - - -
140 3,000 6,550 4.960 - 7,125 4,000
170 3,000 6,210 4,460 5,685 7,310 5,425
200 3,000 - - 7,360 9,900 5,920
 Properties of Dry Cement
Class A High early Basic Basic Retarded
and B strength API class API class class
(Portland) class C G H D,E,F
Specific gravity 3.14 3.14 3.15 3.15 3.16
(average)
Surface area 1,500- 2,000- 1,400- 1,400- 1,200-
(range), (sq cm / 1,900 2.800 1,700 1,700 1,600
gm)
Properties Weight per sack 94 94 94 94 94
of Dry (lb)

Cement & Bulk volume (cu

ft/sack)
1 1 1 1 1

Neat Absolute volume 3.6 3.6 3.58 3.58 3.57

Slurries (gal / sk)
Properties of Neat Slurries
Water (gal/sack) 5.19 6.32 4.97 4.29 4.29
(API)
Slurry weight 15.6 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.5
(lb/gal)
Slurry volume 1.18 1.33 1.14 1.05 1.05
(cu ft/sk)
 Thickening Times (‘pumpability’)

Thickening Times
Depth Static Circu- High Pressure Thickening Time (hours:min)
(ft) Temp lating
deg F Temp
deg F
Portland High API API Retarded
early class class class
strength G H
D,E,F
2000 110 91 4::00+ 4:00+ 3:00+ 3:57
4000 140 103 3:36 3:10 2:30 3:20 4:00+
6000 170 113 2:25 2:06 2:10 1:57 4:00+
8000 200 125 1:40* 1:37 1:44 1:40 4:00+
 Properties – Slurry Density

Standard slurry densities (shown in an earlier

table) may have to be altered to meet specific
requirements (eg, a low strength formation may
not be able to support the hydrostatic pressure of
a cement whose density is around 15 ppg). The
density can be altered by changing the amount of
mixwater or by using certain additives. Most
slurry densities vary between 11-18.5 ppg.
 Properties – Water Loss
The setting process is the result of a dehydration reaction.
If water is lost from the cement slurry before it reaches its
intended position its ‘pumpability’ will decrease and water
sensitive formations may be adversely affected. The
amount of water loss that can be tolerated depends on the
type of cement job, for example:
• Squeeze cementing requires a low water loss since the
cement must be squeezed before the filter cake builds up
and blocks the perforations;
• Primary cementing is not so critically dependent on fluid
loss. The amount of fluid loss from a particular slurry
should be determined from a pilot test. Under standard
laboratory conditions (1000 psi filter pressure, with 325
mesh) a slurry for a squeeze job should give a fluid loss of
50-200 cc. For a primary cement job 250-400 cc is
adequate
 Properties – Corrosion Resistance

Formation water contains certain corrosive

elements, which may cause deterioration of the
cement. Two commonly found compounds are
sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. These
will react with lime and C3S to form large crystals
of calcium sulphoaluminate. These crystals
expand and cause cracks to develop in the
cement structure. Lowering the C3A content of
the cement increases the sulphate resistance.
For high sulphate resistant cement the C3A
content should be 0-3%
 Properties - Permeability

After the cement has hardened the

permeability is very low (<0.1 millidarcy).
This is much lower than most producing
formations. However if the cement is
disturbed during setting (e.g.. gas
intrusion) higher permeability may occur
(5-10 darcies).
 Cement Additives
Most cement slurries will contain some additives to modify
the properties of the slurry to produce a better cement job
to suit particular requirements. Most additives are known
by certain trade names used by various cement service
companies. Additives used to:
• Vary the slurry density;
• Change the compressive strength;
• Accelerate or retard the setting time;
• Control filtration and fluid loss;
• Reduce slurry viscosity
Major
Cement
Additives
 Accelerators
These are added to shorten the time taken for the cement
to set. WOC time is therefore reduced and less rig time is
wasted. Accelerators are especially important in shallow
wells where temperatures are low. In deeper wells the
higher temperatures promote the setting process, and
accelerators may not be necessary. The WOC time is
usually based on the time taken for the cement to attain a
compressive strength of 500 psi.
Common types of accelerator used include:
• Calcium chloride (CaCI2) 1.5 - 2.0%;
• Sodium chloride (NaCl) 2.0 - 2.5%;
• Seawater
 Retarders
In deep wells the higher temperatures will reduce the
thickening time of the cement slurry and the cement
becomes less pumpable. Retarders are used to prolong the
thickening time and avoid the risk of the cement setting in
the casing prematurely. The bottom hole temperature is
the critical factor for the use of retarders. Above a static
temperature of 260 - 275°F the effect of retarders should
be measured in pilot tests.
Common types of retarders used include:
• Calcium lignospulphanate (sometimes with organic acids)
0.1 - 1.5%;
• Saturated Salt Solutions (eg, sea water)
 Lightweight Additives (extenders)
These are used to reduce slurry density for jobs where the
hydrostatic head of the cement may exceed the fracture strength
of certain formations. In reducing the slurry density the
compressive strength is also reduced and the thickening time
increases. The use of these additives allows more mixwater to be
added, and hence increases the yield of the slurry. Such additives
are therefore sometimes called ‘extenders’
Common types of lightweight additives used include:

• Bentonite (2% -16%) – This is by far the commonest type of additive used
to lower slurry density. Bentonite absorbs water, and therefore allows
more mixwater to be added. It will also however reduce compressive
strength and sulphate resistance. The increased yield due to the bentonite
added may be seen in cement tables
• Pozzolan – This may be used in a 50% / 50% mix with the Portland
cements. The result is a slight decrease in compressive strength, and
increase sulphate resistance;
• Diatomaceous earth (10% - 40%) - the large surface area allows more
water absorption, and produces low density slurries (down to 11 ppg)
 Heavy Additives
These are used when cementing through over-
pressured zones
Common types of additive used include:
• Barite (barium sulphate) – This can be used to attain slurry
densities of up to 18 ppg. It also causes a reduction in
strength and pumpability;
• Hematite (Fe203) - The high specific gravity of hematite
can be used to raise slurry densities to 22 ppg. (Friction
reducing additives may be required);
• Sand – graded sand (40-60 mesh) gives a 2 ppg increase
in slurry density
 Fluid Loss Additives

Used to prevent dehydration of the

cement slurry and premature setting
Common additives used include:
• Organic polymers (cellulose) 0.5% -
1.5%;
• Carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose
(CMHEC) 0.3% - 1.0% (CMHEC will also
act as a retarder)
 Friction Reducing Additives
(dispersants)

These are added to improve the flow properties of

the slurry. In particular they will lower the
viscosity so that turbulence will occur at a lower
circulating pressure, thereby reducing the risk of
breaking down formations
Commonly used additives include:
• Polymers 0.3-0.5 lb/sx of cement;
• Salt 1-16 lb/sx;
• Calcium lignosulphanate 0.5-1.5 lb/sx
 Mud Contaminants
As well as the compounds deliberately added to the slurry on
surface to improve the slurry properties, there will also be the
effect of the mud downhole which comes into contact with the
cement in the casing or in the annulus. The chemicals in the mud
may react with the cement to give undesirable side effects. Some
of these are listed below:

Mud additive Effect on cement

Barite increases density
reduces compressive strength
caustic calcium compounds acts as an accelerator
diesel oil decreases density
Thinners act as retarders
Cement Excess