Input/Output

Structured Computer Organization

Lecture #5
Jahan Zeb
Buses
 A collection of parallel wires used to connect the
components of a computer
 The motherboard contains the CPU chip, some slots
for RAM, and various support chips
 Also contains a bus, and sockets into which the edge
connectors of I/O boards can be inserted
 Sometimes there are two buses, a high speed one (for
modern I/O boards) and a low-speed one (for older
boards)
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Input/Output Buses

Physical Structure
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Logical Structure of a Simple PC
 Has a single bus used to connect the CPU, memory,
and I/O devices
 I/O Controller(s)
 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 A controller that reads or writes data to or from
memory without CPU intervention is said to be
performing DMA
 Interrupt/Interrupt Handler: check for errors, info OS
i.e I/O is finished
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Input/Output Buses (2)

Logical Structure
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Bus Usage and Terminologies
 Bus is not only used by I/O controllers, but also by
CPU for fetching instructions and data
 Bus Arbiter decides which goes next if CPU and
I/O controllers wants to use bus at the same time
 I/O device granted bus when needed, the process is
called Cycle stealing
 ISA, Industry Standard Architecture Bus
 PCI, Peripheral Component Interconnect Bus

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Input/Output Buses (3)

A typical modern PC with a PCI bus and an ISA bus

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Terminals: Keyboard, Monitor
 Keyboards
 Cheap keyboards have mechanical contact when
depressed, better ones have sheet of elastometric
material between keys and underlying printed
circuit board
 CRT Monitors
 Cathode Ray Tube
 Electron gun, each for Red, Green and Blue
 Device producing image line by line is called
Raster Scan device
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CRT Monitors

(a) Cross section of a CRT (b) CRT scanning pattern

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Flat Panel Displays
 CRTs are far too bulky and heavy
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) technology
 Two parallel glass plates between which is a sealed volume
containing a liquid crystal
 An light source at back for illuminating screen
 Transparent electrodes, used to create electric field in liquid
crystals
 To control the image displayed: Different parts of the screen
get different voltages
 LED Technology, low power requirements, lower side effects

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Construction of an LCD screen

(a) The construction of an LCD screen.

(b) The grooves on the rear and front plates are perpendicular to
one another.
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Mice

 Small plastic box sits on table next to keyboard

 Allow users to pint screen items
 Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse

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Printers
 Monochrome Printers
 Matrix printers
 If 80 characters in a 5*7 matrix across the line, print
line then consists of 7 horizontal lines, 5*80=400 dots
 Each dot can be printed or not printed, depending on
the character
 Fig(a) illustrates the letter “A” printed on a 5*7 matrix
 Print quality can be enhanced using circles overlap as
shown in fig(b)
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Matrix Printers

(a) The letter “A” on a 5 x 7 matrix.

(b) The letter “A” printed with 24 overlapping needles.
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 Laser Printers
 Rotating precision drum
 Light from laser is scanned along length of the drum
much like electron beam in CRT
 Rotating mirror is used to scan the drum
 Line of dots reaches the toner (black powder reservoir)
 The toner is attracted to those dots that are charged,
thus forming a visual image of that line

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Operation of a laser printer

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Halftoning
 Solution for printing images with gray values

Halftone dots for various gray scale ranges.

(a) 0 – 6. (b) 14 – 20. (c) 28 – 34.
(d) 56 – 62. (e) 105 – 111. (f) 161 – 167.
.
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Color Printers
 Color images can be viewed in two ways:
 Transmitted light: CRT
 Reflected light: Color Photographs
 In theory every color can be produced by mixing
cyan, yellow and magenta ink
 All color printing systems use four inks: CYMK
(K is for blacK)
 The complete set of colors that a display or printer
can produce is called its gamut

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Problems with Color Printing
 Color monitors use transmitted light; Color printers
use reflected light
 CRTs produce 256 intensities per color; color must
halftone
 Monitors have a dark background; paper has a light
background
 The RGB and CMYK gamuts are different

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Ink Types
 Dye-based Inks
 Consist of color dyes dissolved in fluid carrier, give
bright colors and flow easily, main disadvantage is
that they fade when exposed to ultraviolet light
 Pigment-based Ink
 Contains solid particles of pigment suspended in a
fluid carrier that evaporates from the paper, leaving
the pigment behind, do not fade in time but not as
bright as dye-based inks

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MoDems
 Two-level signals suffer considerable distortion
when transmitted over a voice-grade telephone
line, leading to errors
 A pure sine wave known as carrier can be
transmitted with relatively little distortions, this
fact is exploited as the basis of most
telecommunication systems
 By varying frequency, amplitude or phase, a
sequence of 1s and 0s can be transmitted, the
process is called modulation
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Character Codes
 Each computer uses set of characters, i.e. 26 upper
case letters, 26 lower case letters, digits 0-9,
special symbols
 To transfer these characters to computer, each one
is assigned a number; i.e. a=1, b=2,…..z=26, the
mapping of characters onto integers is called a
character code

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 ASCII
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 Each ASCII character has 7 bits, allowing 128
characters in all
 Fig(1) shows the ASCII code. Codes 0 to 1F are
control characters and do not print
 The ASCII print characters are straight forward. They
include the upper and lower case letters, digits,
punctuation marks and a few math symbols

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ASCII Character Codes (1)

The ASCII Character set: characters 0 – 31.

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ASCII Character Codes (2)

The ASCII Character set: characters 32 – 127.

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