REFLECTION SEISMOLOGY

Sampling (Digitisation)

 Converts continuous (analogue) signals to discrete (sampled) values

at constant time interval

 Must allow complete reconstruction of analogue signal from sample

values

 Requires at least two samples per wavelength

 Maximum frequency must satisfy Nyquist criterion:

1
FMax 
2t
Under sampling and Aliasing

 Data that are undersampled (i.e. violate the Nyquist criterion) are
aliased

 Aliased data have the wrong apparent spectrum (incorrect

frequencies)

 Signals cannot be regenerated correctly from aliased measurements

Nyquist Frequency

1
FNy 
2t
 Maximum frequency that can be sampled without distortion (aliasing)

 Sometimes called the “folding frequency”

 Fundamental consideration for acquisition and processing

Convolution

 Mathematical method of describing/calculating effect

of filtering

 Multiplies the amplitude spectra

 Adds the phases
 Convolution is a mathematical way of combining two
signals to form a third signal.

 It is the single most important technique in Digital Signal

Processing (DSP).

 Convolution provides the mathematical framework for

DSP.

 It describes the change in the input signal, due to

impulse

 response of the system, to generate the output signal.

Convolution and Fourier Transforms

convolution

7
Correlation

 Correlation measures the similarity or time alignment off

two time series

 Cross correlation measures how much two time series

resemble each other.

 Cross correlation off a time series with itself is called

auto correlation.
CMP Method

 Controlled by recording geometry

 Central to acquisition
 Driven by processing
 Key strategy and philosophy for both acquisition
and processing
2D Surveys

A 2D survey consists of a grid of coarsely

spaced seismic lines
Recording Configurations

 Single trace (single “channel”)

 Multiple traces (”multichannel”)
Single Channel Recording
Single Channel Recording
Multichannel Recording

End On

Shot gather
Multichannel Recording
Arrays

Channel 1 2 3 4
   

Shot gather
Multichannel Recording

 Described by the “spread”

– Relationship of source position to receivers/cable

 Several possibilities
– End-on
– Split spread
– Symmetric
– Asymmetric
Multichannel Recording

End On

Shot gather
Multichannel Recording

Split Spread

Shot gather
Example Shot Records

AA D B

End On Split Spread Asymmetric Split Spread

The Common MidPoint (CMP) Method

 Mayne (1962)
 Main concept behind modern seismic acquisition
and processing

 Provides redundancy
 Attenuates random noise
 Attenuates coherent noise
– Especially multiples
CMP Recording

Common midpoint

sources receivers

Common Mid Point gather

CMP
Properties of a CMP Gather

 Reflection (signal) is same on all traces

 Reflection traveltime increases with offset
– Measured as “moveout” or apparent velocity
Common MidPoint Gather

Common midpoint

z
2
2 2 ( 2 h )
t ( h)  t 0  2
v
v t0
t0  t (h  0); z 
2
The Big Idea

 CMP Stacking
– Add all traces in CMP (after NMO)

 Increases signal-to-random noise by sqrt(N)

– Controlled by number of traces (N)
– N is called the FOLD of coverage

 Attenuates coherent noise

– Controlled by …
– Moveout/apparent velocity of the noise
– Frequency content of the noise
– Trace spacing
– Effectiveness of groups …
Stacking and Noise

 Signal is coherent: adds coherently

– With correct NMO velocity

 Noise can be random or coherent

 Random noise adds incoherently
1 N
Stack ( Z ) 
N
 Signal (Z ) Noise (Z )
i 1
i i

1 N
1 N
Stack ( Z )   Signali ( Z )  Noise (Z )
i
N i 1 N i 1
Stacking Signal

Im(A(f))

Re(A(f))

Adding signal in frequency domain is like a

walking in a straight line in the Argand plane
Stacking Random Noise

Im(A(f))

Re(A(f))

Adding noise in frequency domain is like a

random walk: phase is different for each trace
Random Walks (Einstein, 1905)
Im(A(f))

Re(A(f))

D L N
Distance moved by N random steps of length L,
D, is equal to the square root of N times L
Stacking and Random Noise

 Signal is coherent: adds coherently

 Random noise adds incoherently
1 N
1 N
Stack ( Z )   Signali ( Z )  Noise (Z )
i
N i 1 N i 1

N N
Stack ( Z )  Signal ( Z )   Noise( Z ) 
N N
1
Stack ( Z )  Signal ( Z )   Noise( Z ) 
N
Stacking and Coherent Noise

 Coherent noise: often shot-generated

– Ground roll
– Multiples

 Coherent noise has different moveout to signal

 Coherent noise has residual moveout after NMO
 Coherent noise is reduced by stacking
– Reduction depends on residual moveout

 Stacking is a form of multichannel filter

CMP Recording

Common midpoint

sources receivers

Common Mid Point gather

CMP
Single Fold Recording

SP 1

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
Single Fold Recording

SP 5

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
Source and cable advance by whole cable length
CMP Recording

SP 1

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 2

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 3

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 4

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 5

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 6

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 7

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 8

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 9

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 10

offset
near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP
CMP Recording

SP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

offset Full fold coverage (ff)

near
4
Fold

3
2
far 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 CMP

Single fold coverage (f)

Single-Fold Data

Yilmaz, 2001
CMP Stacked Data

Yilmaz, 2001
Seismic Resolution

 Vertical Resolution
• Resolution vs Detection
• Thin Bed Response and Tuning

 Lateral Resolution
• Fresnel Zone
• Migration and Lateral Resolution
Vertical Resolution

Detection: Ability to identify that some feature

exists

Resolution: Ability to distinguish two features

from one another

• Detection limit is always smaller than the resolution

limit
• Detection limit depends upon Signal-to-Noise
 Gamma Ray
What is the minimum vertical
distance between two
Shale
subsurface features such

Shale
Baseline
that we can tell them apart
seismically?

Sd
For Example:
Based on seismic data,

Sand
could you determine that
there is a thin shale layer
between the two sands?
Thick Bed Response Wavelet 1 ends before
Wavelet 2 begins

R. C. Wavelet Wavelet Composite

1 2

A Top of Bed
Response

Dp NO
Interference
B

C Base of Bed
Response

Answer: A thick bed is one that has a TWT > Dp

Partial Interference Wavelet 2 starts before
Wavelet 1 ends

Impedance R. C. Wavelet Wavelet Composite

1 2

A Top of Bed
Response

B Dp Some
Interference

C Base of Bed
Response

2nd half-cycle from Wavelet 1

and 1st half-cycle from Wavelet 2
form a trough doublet
Maximum Interference - Tuning Wavelet 2 starts before
Wavelet 1 ends

Impedance R. C. Wavelet Wavelet Composite

1 2

A Top of Bed
Response

B
Dp Maximum
Interference

Base of Bed
C Response

2nd half-cycle from Wavelet 1

and 1st half-cycle from Wavelet 2
are completely in phase
resulting in 2x amplitude
Determining Vertical Resolution

Input Parameters:
Velocity at the zone of
interest
Peak Frequency of the
pulse at the zone of
interest
Computations:
Period = 1/Peak Frequency
Wavelength = Period * Velocity

Limit of Vertical Resolution = Wavelength/4

Shallow Event
Velocity = 2000 Meters / sec
Pulse:
Center Frequency = 50 Hz
Period = 1 / 50 = .020 sec
Wavelength = .020 x 2000 = 40
Meters
Limit of resolution = 40 /4 = 10
Meters
Deep Event
Velocity = 3000 Meters / sec
Pulse:
Center Frequency = 20 Hz
Period = 1 / 20 = .050 sec
Wavelength = .050 x 3000 = 150
Meters
Limit of resolution = 150 / 4 = 37.5
 Resolution is the ability to distinguish distinct
events
 Thin bed response occurs below tuning thickness
 Short-duration seismic pulses are preferred
– Broad bandwidth, zero-phase pulses are best
– Pulses with minimal side-lobe energy enhance
interpretability

 To Improve Resolution
– Bandwidth can be increased by deconvolution
– Frequencies to be included must have adequate S/N
Horizontal Resolution

Would we image the narrow horst?

Would we image all three channel sands?

Lateral Resolution
What is the minimum horizontal distance
between two subsurface features such that we
can tell them apart seismically?
R e f l e c t i o n s f r o m R e f l e c t o r w i t h
Neidell
G a p
&
s
Poggiaglioimi, 1977

R e f l e c t i o n s f r o m R e f l e c t o r w i t h G a p s
 The Fresnel Zone
• An event observed at a detector is reflected
from a zone of points
• The raypaths from source to detector which
differ in length by less than a quarter
wavelength can interfere constructively
• The portion of the reflector from which they
add constructively is the Fresnel zone

• Changes that occur within this zone are difficult to resolve

• The size of the Fresnel zone depends upon the wavelength of
the pulse and the depth of the reflector
Migration Reduces Lateral Smearing

Ideal / Model
Response

800 m
Stack
No Migration

Image After
Migration
Good Migration Enhances Resolution

Standard Migration High-end Migration

Fresnel Zone Equations

Pre-Migration Post-Migration

Fd = Vavg T/F Fd = λ /4 = Vavg /4 F

where:

Fd = Fresnel Diameter
Vavg = Average Velocity
T = Time
F = Frequency of Pulse
λ = Wavelength
Typical Lateral Resolution
Shallow Event
– Time = 1.0 s
– Vint = Vavg = 2000 m/s
– Pulse = 50 Hz
– PreMig Fresnel Diameter = 282 m
– PostMig Fresnel Diameter = 10 m

• Deep Event
– Time = 5.0 s
– Vint = 4600 m/s
– Vavg = 3800 m/s
– Pulse = 20 Hz
– PreMig Fresnel Diameter = 1900 m
– PostMig Fresnel Diameter = 47.5 m
Summary: Lateral Resolution

• Migration enhances lateral resolution

• Large aperture (receiver cable length) is
needed for high lateral resolution
• Fine spatial sampling is needed for high
lateral resolution
• Prestack migration provides better lateral
resolution than poststack migration
• Depth migration provides better resolution
than time migration