AAPG Slides - Lecture-12 - Data Analysis - Interpretation - by Fred Schroeder.

AAPG Slide Resources: Data Analysis by Fred Schroeder.
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Fred W. Schroeder. Downloads Resources Lecture Files | Exercise Files
The notes for each Lecture Slides PPT How to Run For Students Request Solutions

slide are printed next
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Printing Instructions:
thumbnail are
12a-"Burial History"
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12b-"DHI Mapping"
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Slide 1
Introduction slide
The 4 images appear within the lecture
Download: full size image | PPT slide
http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

Slide 2
The objective of this lecture is to introduce some types of analyses that

are used to mature a lead into a prospect once the geologic framework is
established
It will demonstrate some of the scientific methods we use to determine

where to drill
Slide 3
Overview of what we cover in this lecture
Once the geologic framework …..
Slide 4
Outline of topics briefly discussed
Slide 5
Time to depth conversion

Our horizons and faults have been interpreted in units of two-way
travel time
We need to get these to depth units – either feet or meters
We have velocity information obtained during seismic data
processing
We may also have well data that includes check shots or VSPs
(Vertical Seismic Profiles)
these data are collected with shots at the surface and
geophones down the well bore
Download: full size image | PPT slide thus they give us the link between depth in the borehole
where the geophones are located and
two-way travel time that is measured when a shot
goes off on the surface
There are several methods to use velocity information to convert
from time to depth
details are beyond the scope of this course
Bottom line – we can use velocities to convert our interpreted
horizons and faults into a depth (feet, meters) domain

Slide 6
We want to identify sand fairways – where we have the best chance to

have reservoir-quality rocks
Slide 7
In unit 10b we discussed the ABC method for capturing geometric

observations and predicting EODs
Once we have EODs, we use depositional models to predict
lithologies – including sand fairways
We can also use seismic attributes (amplitude, frequency, etc.)
over an interval associated with the sequence we are interested in
If we have well data, we can use it to calibrate the seismic
response, i.e., we know the lithology at the well location and can
use the seismic response there to help predict away from the
well(s)
Download: full size image | PPT slide To predict away from the wells (undrilled areas) we will use ABC
maps and maps of seismic attributes to predict EODs, infer
lithologies, and identify potential sand fairways
Slide 8
Here is an example where the reflection geometries are fairly

diagnostic
We have oblique progradation indicated by the seismic reflection
geometries
This is very similar to the cartoon example covered in lecture 10b
We can predict where we would find coastal plain, shoreface and
offshore deposits
We can then infer that there is a good possibility that we have a
sand fairway in the region of nearshore deposits (yellow)
Slide 9
Next we have to identify traps – structural, stratigraphy, or combination
Slide 10
We use depth (or time) structure maps, with fault zones, to look for
places where significant accumulations of HC might be trapped:
Structural traps would be things such as: anticlines, high-side fault
blocks, low-side roll-overs
Stratigraphic traps would be things such as: sub-unconformity
traps, sand pinch-outs
Combination traps (structure + stratigraphy) would be things such

as: a deep-water channel crossing an anticline
Slide 11
Here is an example of a structural trap – a simple anticline

On the left is a map view; right is cross-section A-A'
If enough HC has migrated into the trap, it will be filled to a spill or
leak point For this example, the spill point is on the ENE
Any more HC added will spill to the ENE, possibly filling another
trap further along the migration pathway
Slide 12
If the amount of HC reaching the trap is small (less than the trap
could hold), then the trap is said to be under-filled
In this example the trap is ‘HC charge-limited’ and is not filled to
the spill point
The way the cross-section is drawn, both ‘bumps’ have been filled
to about the same level
This would be true if HC migration came from the NW or SE
If HC migration came from the west, it would first fill the western
‘bump’ to the saddle point and then HC would start to fill the
eastern ‘bump’
Download: full size image | PPT slide If HC migration came from the east, how would the two ‘bumps’
fill? Fill east first; then spill to west
Slide 13
Here is another type of structural trap with two degrees of fill

On the left, cross-section on top and map view below
where the reservoir on the down side touches the fault is
the leak point
more HC fill would leak across and up the fault plane and
move through the high-side sands
On the right, cross-section on top and map view below
here the fault 'seals' – does not allow HC to penetrate it
the reservoir fill level is controlled by a synclinal leak point
on the west
Download: full size image | PPT slide This illustrates the importance of predicting whether faults leak or
seal HCs
It could be that the left case does not hold enough HC to be an
economic success, but the right case does hold enough HC to be
an economic success
There are methods to predict the sealing potential of faults, but
that topic is beyond the scope of this course
Slide 14
Here are two stratigraphic traps

On the left, cross-section on top and map view below

This represents a sub-unconformity style of trap

sands below the unconformity have a component of dip
and form the reservoir
above the unconformity is a marine shale that provides the
seal
here the big unknown often is how far downdip the sands
contain HCs
On the right, cross-section on top and map view below
Download: full size image | PPT slide This represents an isolated reef
porous and permeable carbonate facies form the
reservoir – often in the edges of the reef rather than
the central lagoonal facies
Again there has to be an adequate seal facies
capping the reef
Slide 15
This slide illustrates one combination trap

Top left = structure map with a high in the center
Top right = depositional facies – a deep water channel system
where the axial facies has the best reservoir properties
Bottom right = cross-section showing structure, depositional facies,
and green is the oil fill
Bottom left = map view with structure contours, facies belts and oil
within reservoir quality rocks
The anticinal structure causes oil to migrate towards the high point
Download: full size image | PPT slide (crest)
The facies belts limit the producible reservoir to the channel axis
facies
The trap has both a stuctural & a stratigraphic component
Slide 16
Next we will highlight some geophysical evidence for the presence of HCs
There are two types of evidence:
DHIs – Direct HC Indicators

AVO – Amplitude Versus Offset
Slide 17
A DHI is a direct hydrocarbon indicator
This means that there is something anomalous in the seismic

response caused by the presence of HCs
When the porous rock has HC in the pore spaces of the rock, the
combination of velocity and density results in a diagnostic seismic
anomaly (a DHI)
There are a number of DHI signatures, such as:
an Amplitude anomaly
a Fluid contact reflection
the anomaly exhibits a good Fit to structure
Slide 18

The graph is based in data from the Gulf of Mexico – impedance versus
depth for shales and for sands with 3 types of fluids in the pores: water,
oil, gas
Look around 4,000 ft
shale and water sand have about the same impedance so

reflection amplitudes would be weak
oil sand has an impedance that is about 15% lower
if a thick oil sand is encased above and below by shales
and water sands, it would be associated
with moderate to high reflection amplitudes (top and
base, opposite polarities)
gas sand has an impedance that is about 40% lower
if a thick gas sand is encased above and below by shales
and water sands, it would be associated
with extremely high reflection amplitudes (top and
base, opposite polarities)
at 4,000 ft we should be able to differentiate oil sands from gas
sands by the amplitude response
At 7,500 feet, an oil sand would have about 8% lower impedance;

gas about 25% lower
there would still be significant impedance contrasts, but the
amplitudes would not be as strong
The deeper the potential reservoir, the less diagnostic the
amplitude response
Gas sand would be diagnostic; oil sands might be harder to detect
Using reflection amplitudes to detect the presence of HCs is

commonly referred to as "Bight Spot" technology
It works in many basins, not just the Gulf of Mexico
Slide 19
These images are from some modeled seismic data with noise
included
The left image shows two regions with anomalous amplitudes –
dark blacks and big excursions in the troughs (whites)
In the upper region, the basal strong reflection also appears rather
flat – another clue
In the right image, the modeled reservoir is thicker

There are several clues to note:
the reflection at the top (yellow line) changes from low to
Download: full size image | PPT slide high amplitude as it goes from a water sand to a HC sand
the strong basal reflection on the right indicates the bottom
of the HC-filled sand
towards the center, the strong black becomes nearly flat
this flat to dipping geometry at the base of the HC-bearing
zone is called a "hockey stick"
the central (flat) portion is a reflection off the fluid contact –
HC-filled sand above with water-filled sand below
although the sand properties are the same, having different
fluids results in different velocities and densities for the
formation
So on the right we have two lines of evidence
an amplitude anomaly at the top and base of the HC-
bearing rock, and
a fluid contact reflection
Slide 20
Here are two more seismic models (with added noise) to illustrate
a fluid contact reflection
Note the "hockey stick" in the upper image
For the lower image, the reservoir is thinner we only see the fluid
contact, not the handle portion of the "hockey stick"
IMPORTANT – a fluid contact will be flat (horizontal) in depth,

unless there is a hydrodynamic gradient causing it to tilt

Since we are looking at data in the time domain, there can be

some distortions if the velocities above the reservoir
Download: full size image | PPT slide vary laterally and cause a flat event in time to be tilted on a
time section
Slide 21
If we have a prospect with a fluid reflection, that fluid reflection

should be flat in depth
We can plot where the fluid reflection is and post it on a map
We can then measure how well it conforms to a constant depth
around a structure (anticline)
If we are working in units of two-way time, it usually show a good
to fair fit to structure
If the fit to structure is not good, we would convert the interpreted
top of reservoir horizon from two-way time to depth (ft or meters)
and check again
Download: full size image | PPT slide It is rare that the fluid contact actually dips in depth due to a
hydrodynamic gradient
Slide 22
AVO is an analysis of how reflection amplitude varies as a function

of incident angle
I lied before when I said the reflection coefficient was a function of
velocities and densities – please forgive me
There is another factor that can be important, the angle of incident
of the seismic energy hitting the interface
If a shot and receiver are close, then the incident angle is close to
90°
However, if the shot-to-receiver distance is several kilometers, the
incident angle could be greater than 30°
Download: full size image | PPT slide The impact of the incident angle is different for shales, water-
sands, oil-sands and gas-sands
AVO analysis capitalizes on these differences
We can ask our data processors to stack the data (combine shot-
receiver pairs) in different ways
A full stack uses all shot-receiver pairs at all incident
angles
A near stack might use only the receivers in the first
(nearest to the boat) half of the streamers
A far stack might use only the receivers in the second
(farthest from the boat) half of the streamers
We can then compare the reflection amplitude from a reflection off
the top of a potential reservoir from the near stack relative to that
on the far stack
Slide 23
This shows one source-receiver pair and illustrates the incidence

angle Θ
Note: the physics dictates that we really want Θ, the angle of

incidence
It is easier for us to stack the seismic data by distance along the
streamer/cable
AVO is amplitude versus offset – or distance along the streamer
AVA is amplitude versus angle – a better way to do things but a bit
more expensive

Download: full size image | PPT slide Many companies do AVA in the data processing, but get sloppy in
their terminology and call it AVO analysis
Slide 24
This slides explains (again) why we care about AVA or AVO

Note in the diagram, the top of the reservoir is in a trough
The excursion to the left (amplitude) for the near offset
stack is noticeably less than the excursion to the left
(amplitude) for the far offset stack
The same can be said for the base of the reservoir and its
associated peak (black)
Why the polarity change (top = trough, base = peak)?

The yellow HC sand probably has a lower impedance than
Download: full size image | PPT slide the other layers
So there is a decrease in impedance at the top of the
reservoir (higher to lower impedance) and an increase in
impedance at the base of the reservoir (lower to higher
impedance)
Slide 25
We need a way to easily analyze amplitude changes with angle or

offset
Geophysicists defined two parameters for us: A and B
The diagram on the left is a flattened CDP gather – the common
traces for a location with the 'hyperbolas' removed by correcting the
gather with an appropriate velocity
the trace on the left is close to 90° incidence; the one on
the right is close to 35°
The red line is the position of the top of a reservoir
Download: full size image | PPT slide The second diagram shows the amplitude of the trough with angle
(or offset)
it is in a trough so the amplitudes are negative
the values become more negative with angle (or offset)
We can approximate the amplitude variation with a straight line fit
this straight line can be characterized by a slope (gradient)
and an intercept (value when x = 0; 90° incidence)
The parameter A is the intercept value; B is the slope (or gradient)
We can express the amplitude vs offset as a point on the right
chart, which plots intercept (x axis) against slope (y axis)
Typically we build seismic models and fill a sand layer with the
three types of fluid – water, oil, gas
Each fluid type will lie in a different portion of the A B crossplot
(right chart)
The more separate the three points, the easier it is to differentiate
water-sands from oil-sands from gas-sands
Slide 26
Here is a seismic line with good DHI evidence for HCs

The top of reservoir reflection changes amplitude with depth
indicating a possible change in fluid type
There is a good fluid reflection at the oil-water contact; a more
subtle one at the gas-oil contact
When we perform an AVO analysis, on an A versus B crossplot we
get a three clouds of amplitude points that indicate we have gas
high on the structure, oil at intermediate depths, and water-filled
sands below the lower fluid event
Slide 27
Our interpretation shows us the present-day structure and stratigraphy

From this we can:

Predict where Sand Fairways & Source Intervals occur by

predicting EODs and inferring lithologies
Evaluate Trap Configurations by identifying and sizing potential
traps and considering spill / leak points
Consider if sealing units exist by determining if shales or other low
permeability lithologies provide top & lateral seal
Identify where a distinct HC response occurs through DHI and/or
Download: full size image | PPT slide AVO analysis
Model a simple HC migration case by using present-day dips on
stratal units and assuming buoyancy-driven migration
Slide 28
We would like to know more by including the element of geologic

time
When did the traps form?
When did the source rocks generate HCs?
What was the attitude (dip) of the strata when the HCs were
migrating?
What is the quality of the reservoir (Φ , k) ?
How adequate is the seal?
How have temperature and pressure conditions changed through
time?
To answer these questions, we have to model the basin's history from the
time of deposition to the present
Slide 29
That brings us to topic #5 Basin modeling
There are two approaches:
to go back in time from the present-day configurations – geohistory

to model the basin's development forward through geology time -
simulation
Slide 30
Here is a simple cross-section with 4 major depositional units

brown, orange, yellow and green
We can back-strip each unit and estimate the basin's shape – unit
by unit
We are limited to the ages of the interpreted horizons – here 18
Ma, 29 Ma, 36 Ma and before deposition began at 42 Ma
After we do the back-stripping, we can estimate the parameters

that controlled the basin's development,
such as subsidence through time, sediment supply through
Download: full size image | PPT slide time, paleobathymetry, and some estimate of sea level
change through time
We can then use basin simulation software to model the basin
forward through time
We can use a much smaller time step, e.g., ½ million year
We can also model temperatures, pressures, HC generation,
porosity changes, etc
Slide 31

Recap of how we might model a basin's history
Slide 32
This animation shows output from a HC migration software

package
Buoyancy is the driving mechanism and rock properties have to be
defined
In this example, Trap A has a very good seal – it has early oil fill
which is displaced by late gas
Trap B has a good seal for oil but allows gas to leak once
the gas thickness exceeds a critical value
Trap B maintains an oil leg – the gas can not displace all
the oil since it leaks through the top seal
Download: full size image | PPT slide Excess oil in Trap B (with some dissolved gas) spills into
Trap C
This is a 2-D model to help show conceptually the types of HC

migration that could occur
Rock properties can be varied (e.g., stronger to weaker seals,
different source rock properties)
We can build 3-D migration models as well, but often we do not
have adequate data to constrain the results
We model different scenarios, but can not say which is correct pre-
drill
Slide 33
This introduces the exercise

You will be mapping part of the A1 sand – the part where gas is in
the pore space
Note the strong (high negative amplitude) trough
Also note there are faults
On this line a fault forms the western boundary of the gas
field
Slide 34
You will be looking at the magnitude of the trough – its largest

negative amplitude
The blow-up on the left shows extremely negative numbers
where the trough is vertical, it has been clipped for display
purposes
Compare this response to the blow-up on the right
On the right, where water is the pore fluid, the response is weaker
(less negative numbers)
Slide 35

You can using the trough amplitudes to predict the fluid within the sand, as
shown for inline 840

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BLOGS BOOKSTORE BULLETIN CAREER CENTER EDUCATION EXPLORER MEETINGS LIBRARY

Slides and talking

The notes for each Lecture Slides PPT How to Run For Students Request Solutions

Download: full size image | PPT slide

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

The objective of this lecture is to introduce some types of analyses that

It will demonstrate some of the scientific methods we use to determine

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Overview of what we cover in this lecture

Once the geologic framework …..

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Outline of topics briefly discussed

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Time to depth conversion

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

We want to identify sand fairways – where we have the best chance to

Download: full size image | PPT slide

In unit 10b we discussed the ABC method for capturing geometric

Here is an example where the reflection geometries are fairly

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Next we have to identify traps – structural, stratigraphy, or combination

Download: full size image | PPT slide

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

as: a deep-water channel crossing an anticline

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Here is an example of a structural trap – a simple anticline

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Here is another type of structural trap with two degrees of fill

Here are two stratigraphic traps

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

This represents a sub-unconformity style of trap

This slide illustrates one combination trap

There are two types of evidence:

DHIs – Direct HC Indicators

Download: full size image | PPT slide

A DHI is a direct hydrocarbon indicator

This means that there is something anomalous in the seismic

There are a number of DHI signatures, such as:

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

Look around 4,000 ft

shale and water sand have about the same impedance so

At 7,500 feet, an oil sand would have about 8% lower impedance;

Using reflection amplitudes to detect the presence of HCs is

In the right image, the modeled reservoir is thicker

IMPORTANT – a fluid contact will be flat (horizontal) in depth,

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

Since we are looking at data in the time domain, there can be

If we have a prospect with a fluid reflection, that fluid reflection

AVO is an analysis of how reflection amplitude varies as a function

This shows one source-receiver pair and illustrates the incidence

Note: the physics dictates that we really want Θ, the angle of

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

This slides explains (again) why we care about AVA or AVO

Why the polarity change (top = trough, base = peak)?

We need a way to easily analyze amplitude changes with angle or

Here is a seismic line with good DHI evidence for HCs

Download: full size image | PPT slide

Our interpretation shows us the present-day structure and stratigraphy

http://www.aapg.org/slide_resources/schroeder/12/index.cfm[9/23/2012 1:05:46 AM]

Predict where Sand Fairways & Source Intervals occur by