4.3.

2 Horizontal Alignments

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Lecture 5
Lecture Outline
Horizontal Alignments
Straights [Tangents]
Circular Curves
Super elevation
Transition Curves
Widening of Curves

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Horizontal Alignments
 Should be designed to the highest standard
consistent with the topography
 Be chosen carefully to provide good drainage &
minimize earthworks
 Should be designed to achieve a uniform
operating speed
 Where a sharp curvature Is unavoidable, a
sequence of curves of decreasing radius is
recommended
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Horizontal Alignments (cont…)
• Horizontal Alignment consists of:
– Straight lines-tangents
– Curves:
» Simple circular curves
» Compound Curves
» Reverse Curves
» Transitional Spirals

• Curves:- used to
– provide access
– prevent demolishing of important places
– make transition from tangent to tangent
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Straights (Tangents)
 Long straights should be avoided because they
are monotonous for drivers & cause headlight
dazzle on straight grades (winding alignment)
 Short straights between curves in the same
direction should not be used because of the
broken back effect
 where a reasonable tangent length is not
attainable, the use of long, transitions or
compound curvature should be considered
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Straights (Tangents) cont….
 Guidelines concerning the length of straights :
 Straights should not have lengths > (20*V) meters,
where V is the design speed in km/h.
 Straights between circular curves turning in the
same direction should have lengths >(6*V) meters,
 Straights between the end and the beginning of
un-transitioned reverse circular curves should
have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total
super elevation run-off

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Circular Curves
 Due to different terrain conditions, different
types of curves are used.

R1
R1
R2
R2

(1) Simple horizontal curve (2) Broken back curve (3) Compound curve

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Circular Curves (cont…)
R2

R2

R1

R1

(a) With tangent (b) Without tangent

(4) Reverse Curve

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Simple Horizontal Curves
PC – point of curvature
PI – point of intersection
PT – point of tangency
Δ – central angle
R – radius of curve
M=Middle Ordinate
E=External Distance
T=Length of Tangent Stations of
PC, PI, and PT:
PC = PI – T
P T = PI + T = PC + Lc

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 Relations

T  R tan(  / 2 )
C  2 R sin(  / 2 )
L  R  / 180
E  R sec(  / 2 )  1 
M  R 1  cos(  / 2 ) 

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Compound Curves
  L   s

TL  RL tan L
2

TS  R S tan s
2
LT  TL  p
ST  TS  q
P TL  TS q
 
sin  S sin180    sin  L

RL=Large Curve Radius

∆L=Central Angle of large radius curve
RS=Small Curve Radius
∆S=Central Angle of small radius curve
∆=Deflection Angle
ST= short Tangent LT= Long Tangent
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Reverse Curve

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Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
 Objects on the inside of a curve like vegetation,
building or cut face will, sometimes, obstruct the
line of sight.
 A measure for such problems is removing the
objects, if it is economically feasible, otherwise we
have to increase the radius of the curve to ensure
that SSD is available
 The required radius of curve is dependent on the
distance of the obstruction from the centerline and
the sight distance
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Sight Distance (cont…)

(a) S < Lc (b) S > Lc

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Sight Distance (cont…)
• Case 1. S < Lc Sight distance a measured
along centreline of inside lane
  R M 
 cos  1   Centre line of Road
 R 
S  40  
D
M
A Sight line O
• Case 2. S > Lc
  M  L  2  S  L c 
Ra
di
us
c
8R

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Super elevation
• Vehicles moving along a
curved path are subjected
to an outward reactive
force (centrifugal force)
• This force will be
balanced by side friction
developed b/n the tyres
and pavement

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Super elevation (cont…)
 Equating centrifugal mv 2
R
 
 N  f  N  N  f  mgf
L R
force with centripetal v2 V2
f 
force gives gR  127  R
 To avoid both sliding and
V 2
overturning of vehicles e  f 
on a curved path, super 127  R 
elevating the outer edge f depends upon :
is necessary, in addition Vehicle speed
to the developed side  Type & condition of roadway
surface
friction Type and condition of the tyres
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Attainment of Super elevation
 The transition from a tangent to a curved
super elevated section must be accompanied
without any appreciable reduction in speed
 So that, comfort and safety of occupants of
the travelling vehicle is ensured.
 The normal cambered surface on the straight
reach of the road is changed into a super
elevated surface into two stages :

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Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)
 First Stage : The outer half of the camber is gradually
raised until it is level
 Second Stage : three methods may be adopted to
attain the full super-elevation
 The surface of the road is rotated about the
centerline of the carriageway (commonly used)
 The surface of the road is rotated about the
inner edge
 The surface of the road is rotated about the
outer edge
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 e
C
L h2
H
2 - 4%
2 - 4% h1
Normal Cross-section Rotation about the crown

2 - 4% e
h
H
Complete elimination of crown h
Rotation about the inner edge
2 - 4%

X-section becomes a straight fall

from one side to another
• Where: H=ew
w=width of roadway

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4/4/23 08:04 AM 21
Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)

Super elevation Runoff

• Is the distance required for accomplishing the
transition from a normal to a super elevated
section
• Is a function of the design speed and rate of
super elevation

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Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)
Spiral Curve Transition(tangent-spiral-circular)

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Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)
Spiral Curve Transition(tangent-spiral-circular)
• In alignment design with spirals, the super
elevation runoff is effected over the whole of the
transition curve
• The length of runoff is the spiral length with the
tangent to spiral (TS) at the beginning and the
spiral to curve (SC) at the end
• The change in cross slope begins by removing the
adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the
outside of the curve on a length of tangent just
ahead of TS (the tangent run out)
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Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)
Without Spiral Transition(tangent-circular )

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Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)
Without Spiral Transition(tangent-circular )
 The super elevation runoff is considered to be
that length beyond the tangent run out
 Empirical methods are employed to locate the
super elevation runoff length with respect to
the point of curvature (PC)
 Current design practice is to place
approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the
tangent approach and one-third on the curve
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Transition Curves
Advantages of Transition Curves
 Along high-speed roadways with sharp
curvature, transition curves may be needed to
prevent drivers from encroaching into adjoining
lanes
 provide a natural and easier to follow path for
drivers such that the centrifugal force increases
or decreases gradually as a vehicle enters or
leaves a circular curves
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Transition Curves (cont…)
Advantages of Transition Curves (cont…)
 Provides a convenient desirable distance for
super elevation runoff
 Facilitates gradual change in width of pavement
(full widening to start at circular curve)
 Enhances the aesthetic appearance of a
highway b/c their use avoids noticeable breaks
at the beginning and end of circular curves
 Euler spiral (clothoid)- commonly used
transition curve
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Transition Curves (cont…)

L = 2Rθ
θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians)
=28.65Ls/Rc(in degrees)
Ts =Ls/2 +(Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
S = Ls2 / 24Rc
Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc

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Transition Curves (cont…)
Length of Transition
 Is determined based on two criteria:
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
should not cause discomfort to drivers
Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc)
The rate of change of super elevation (super
elevation application ratio) should not cause
higher gradients & unsightly appearances
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Transition Curves (cont…)
 Super-elevation runoff: length of highway needed to
accomplish the change in cross slope from a normal
crown section to a fully super-elevated section (or, vice
versa)
 The rate of raising the outer edge above the centre line
e=6%
should be: SC
Design Speed (kph) Ratio V:H D
80 1:200 ∆g

64 1:175
48 1:150 TS

32 1:125
Edge Centre Line
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Widening of Curves
 There is a tendency to drive a curved path
longer than the actual curve, shifting the
vehicle laterally to the right on right-turning
curves and to the left on left-turning curves
creating a need for additional pavement width
 The amount of widening needed varies with
The width of the pavement on tangent
The design speed
The curve radius or degree of curvature
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Widening of Curves (cont…)
• The widening required can be calculated from
2
B V
Wc n 
2R 10 R
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve R2
L
V = design speed (Km/hr)
R1
n = number of lanes f B

Wc=total widening
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 Widening of Curves (cont…)
 Widening is also required for design Standards
DS1 through DS5 at high fills for the psychological
comfort of drivers
Radius of Curve Curve Widening Curve Widening Fill Widening
Single lane (m) Two Lane (m)
Height of Fill (m) Amount (m)

>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0

120-250 0.0 0.6 3.0-6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0-9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20 Refer Section 8.8 Switchbacks [ ERA manual 2001]

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