Methodology of Social Science

Research and Writing

Dr. Christabell P.J.

Associate Professor
Department of Economics
University of Kerala
 Scheme of presentation
1. Concept and scope of research in social science
2. Types of research
3. Methodology of research
4. Formulation of research problem
5. Steps in Research Process
6. Review of literature
7. Process of writing the thesis -Layout of research report - Preliminaries, contents of the report, appendices,
bibliography
8. Style manuals
9. Criteria for the evaluation of research
10. Question and Answer
 Concept and scope of research in social
science
Section 1

http://www.gdcboysang.ac.in/About/droid/uploads/UNIT%20I-A.pdf
 Social Science Research

 Social science research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and

conceptualizing human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of
human behaviour and social life.
 Social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomena, to clarify
the doubtful and correct the misconceived fact of social life.
 It involves the application of scientific method for understanding and analyzing
of social life in order to correct and verify the existing knowledge as a system.
 The main idea behind social research is to discover new inter relations, new
knowledge, new facts and also to verify old ones.
 Nature of Social Science Research

 In contrast to the physical science the social science lack the power of exact prediction; this
is attributed to the “erratic”, idiosynoration and irregular nature of human behaviour.
 Social scientist point out that the low predictable potential in social science is due to our
limited knowledge of relevant variables operative in the group like customs, traditions etc.
 The cause and effect are difficult to be segregated clearly.
 Functions of Social Science Research
 The important functions of social science research are discussed below;
 a) Discovery of facts and their interpretation.
 Social research provides answer to questions of what, when, how and why of man, social life and institutions.
 Discover of facts and their inter relationship help us to discard distortions and contribute to our understanding of social
reality.
 b) Diagnosis of problems and their analysis.
 Our society has innumerable problems such as poverty, unemployment, economic inequality, social tension etc.
 The nature and dimensions of such problems have to be diagnosed and analyzed.
 An analysis of problems leads to an identification of appropriate remedial actions.
 c) Systematization of knowledge.
 The facts discovered through research are systematized and the body of knowledge is developed.
 It contributes to the growth of theory building.
 d) Control over social phenomena.
 Research in social science provides first hand information about the nature of social institutions.
 This knowledge helps us to control over the social phenomena.
 Functions of Social Science Research
 e) Prediction.
 Social research aims at finding an order among social fact and their casual relations.
 This affords a sound basis for prediction in several cases
 f) Development planning.
 Systematic research can give us the required data base for planning and designing
developmental schemes and programmes.
 g) Social welfare.
 Social research can identify the causes of social evils and problems.
 It can thus help in taking appropriate remedial actions.
 It also provides guideline for social welfare.
Scope of Social Science Research
Types of research
Section 2
https://www.voxco.com/blog/types-of-social-research/
 Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research refers to collecting and statistically analyzing numerical
data.
 It helps in finding patterns, predictions, averages in the collected data.
 Quantitative data is collected through conducting surveys, polls, and interviews.
 Advantages
 It allows the researcher to reach out to larger sample size.
 Does not require observation.
 Research performed is anonymous and can have honest responses.
 Disadvantages:
 It does not study the reason behind a response.
 Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is a type of social research which aims at gathering descriptive
opinions of people through open-ended questions in a survey or an interview.
 The data collected from this research is vast and needs to be summarized to get to a
conclusion.
 Advantages
 It gets to the reason behind the attitude of the responders.
 It gives a lot of data to work on.
 It is not very costly.
 Disadvantages:
 It does not statistically represent the data.
 There is a chance of data loss due to its large data nature.
 Applied research
 It is research that provides solutions for real-life problems.
 Researchers use applied research to get to the solutions which they can implement
immediately.
 Applied research is used in everyday life problems as it can provide solutions in a short
period and the solutions are easy to implement as well.
 Advantages:
 It helps find solutions for a specific business or other settings.
 Solutions can be implemented right away.
 Disadvantages:
 Solutions established from applied research cannot be generalized for other similar problems.
 Pure Research

 Pure or basic research, unlike applied research, does not concern about providing solutions.
 This research can be explanatory, exploratory or descriptive.
 The main objective of this research is to provide a total understanding of a topic.
 Pure or basic research is conducted when you want to understand a problem statement without getting
into providing any solution for it.
 Advantages:
 It expands our knowledge about everyday life.
 It covers a large part of the topic.
 Disadvantages:
 It does not provide the deep learning of how to tackle the problem.
 Exploratory Research
 This research is helping to get to solutions for the problems that are not clear.
 It provides a better understanding of the existing problem but will not provide final solutions.
 It is conducted at a preliminary stage of the problem and answers questions like why what and how.
 Exploratory research can be used when you have to study the scope of the existing problem for its
future.
 It can help you find the focus for the future.
 Advantages:
 The researcher can adapt to the changes during the research.
 It costs very low.
 It can give solutions for the future of the problems.
 Disadvantages:
 This research may lead to wrong decisions.
 Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research is research that describes the characteristics of the variables.
 The characteristics can be the answers to the questions like “what, why, how and when”
 It is also called observational research as the variables are not changed during the research.
 When you want to conduct an observational study without touching the integrity of the variable,
descriptive research is the solution for you.
 Advantages:
 As it uses primary data collection, the data is rich in information.
 The survey method can be qualitative and quantitative providing flexibility.
 Disadvantages:
 Information collected can be misleading.
 The researcher’s biases can affect the result.
 The size of the sample can have representative issues.
 Analytical Research
 Analytical research focuses on the cause-effect of the variables.
 While descriptive analysis tells the facts, analytical research determines what the reason behind those facts
is.
 Analytical research come in handy when you have to resolve the “what, when, how and why” of the
existing researched topic.
 Advantages:
 Provides more control over the data.
 Determines the reason behind the fact.
 It is inexpensive and simple to implement.
 Disadvantages:
 Can include measurement errors.
 Bias in the sample population can affect the results.
 Explanatory Research
 This research deals with researchers revisiting phenomenon that were not studied in-depth before.
 It doesn’t mean that the research has to provide solutions now.
 It can be done for the sole purpose of understanding the topic.
 Explanatory research aims towards finding out why the phenomenon occurred and what are
chances of it occurring in the future are.
 Advantages:
 Allows the researcher to know more about the topic.
 Gives a scope to have new solutions.
 Disadvantages:
 Results can have the researcher’s biases affected.
 Conceptual Research
 It includes observing and analyzing the already existing topic.
 It doesn’t involve any practical research.
 Researchers state their concepts and ideas regarding the topic.
 It is just and theoretical ideology of the topic.
 Conceptual research is used more in philosophical research.
 They use it to come up with new concepts and enhance the existing ones.
 Advantages:
 It requires few resources which saves time and resources.
 It uses existing literature hence making it convenient.
 Disadvantages:
 The results may not be considered reliable and factual.
 It is likely to face errors overtime after new concepts are discovered.
 Empirical Research
 Empirical research involves concluding only from verifiable shreds of evidence.
 This research can be conducted using a qualitative method or quantitative method.
 The results have a strong background and can be trusted.
 Empirical research is useful when you want to prove a hypothesis based on strong proof.
 As people need to have something that can be proven, this research provides exactly just that.
 Advantages:
 This makes the conducted research more authentic.
 Strengthens the internal validity.
 Disadvantages:
 It can be very time-consuming.
 Data collection can be challenging as it is supposed to be from an authorized source.
 Deductive Research
 Deductive research is based on an already existing theory.
 It creates a hypothesis on the theory and then research is done to test if the hypothesis is true.
 The theories are tested against observations.
 Deductive research stands strong when you have to formulate a hypothesis on a theory, test that
hypothesis and examine the results.
 Advantages:
 It explains the cause-effect relationship between variables.
 The results can be generalized to a certain extent.
 Disadvantages:
 They may not understand the rules.
 It can be misrepresenting.
 Inductive Research
 Unlike deductive research, inductive research works with a focus on developing a theory.
 It goes from observation to generalizations of the topic.
 Commonly, researchers prefer to combine both pieces of research in case of a huge study.
 Inductive research can be used when you want to understand a topic that does not have enough
existing literature.
 It helps you to observe the topic and then come to conclusions which you can apply in a broader
sense.
 Advantages:
 It can be used to predict what can happen in the future.
 It gives deep knowledge about the research topic.
 Disadvantages:
 The reasoning can be incorrect.
 The research is limited to how much you can make a result generalization
 Predictive Research
 As the name suggests, this research predicts the outcomes, consequences, costs, and other such factors.
 These factors are calculated for the existing theories.
 The predictions are mostly about the things that are not tested or tried yet.
 Predictive analysis is an efficient method of research when you want to find the probability of a
phenomenon occurring shortly.
 It can be used in all types of research problems and is a common practice.
 Advantages:
 It has a competitive advantage.
 It also helps reduce risks and the costs behind solving them.
 Deal with problems before they occur.
 Disadvantages:
 Data cannot be relied upon totally because people don’t always give honest answers in surveys.
 Data collected can be different concerning quality measures.
 Methodology of research
Section 3

http://what-when-how.com/social-sciences/methodology-social-science/
 Methodology - Definition

 The term methodology may be defined in at least three ways:

(1) a body of rules and postulates that are employed by researchers in a discipline of study;
(2) a particular procedure or set of procedures; and
(3) the analysis of the principles of procedures of inquiry that are followed by researchers in a
discipline of study.
 A BODY OF RULES AND POSTULATES
 Methodology refers to the behavior of scientists and scholars when examining
phenomena relevant to their specific disciplines.
 The American Heritage Dictionary offers the following formal definition for
methodology: "the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of
study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of
knowledge" (Pickett 2000, p. 2074).
 Methodology in the social sciences is usually characterized by the following:
 (1) it defines the information to be analyzed;
 (2) it provides the conceptual tools and procedures necessary to perform an analysis; and
 (3) it sets forth the limits of the analysis.
 Methodology necessarily encompasses the three facets of exploration,
description, and explanation (Babbie 2001, p. 91).
A PARTICULAR PROCEDURE OR SET OF PROCEDURES
 The social sciences use an assortment of research methods.
 These include, but are not limited to, experiments, surveys, field research,
content analysis, analysis of existing data, comparative research, and
evaluative research (Mouton and Marais 1988).
 Each of these types of analysis needs to be systematized.
 ANALYSIS OF PRINCIPLES
 All methodologies include a system of analysis that is used as a backdrop for organizing, collecting,
and interpreting data.
 Data are usually systematized through either inductive and deductive reasoning.
 In most research projects, the system of analysis is determined in the first step of the research process
because the researcher must at that point choose how he or she intends to collect data.
 Deductive reasoning begins with the idea that the researcher has a predetermined framework and
uses it as a model to guide the research (Mouton and Marais 1988; Babbie 2001).
 Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, allows the researcher to begin a project with a general
question but without a clear outline or framework.
 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN THE
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
 One of the major issues when conducting social science research is validity.
 Some argue that the social sciences do not deal in empirical fact and as such are not as valid as the
so-called hard sciences.
 It is believed that researchers are human and can therefore never be fully objective.
 Max Weber (1864-1920) argued for value-free sociology and urged researchers to contribute
information free from subjective opinions (Mouton and Marais 1988; Weber 1962).
 This is a central debate in social science research.
 Many researchers strive to separate research from value judgments, and the idea behind quantification
within the social sciences is a nod toward value-free judgments.
 In fact, the idea of creating a methodology with clear procedures and principles is the embodiment of
the necessity to make the social sciences more objective in the eyes of the public.
 Frameworks

 A framework is a model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among several factors
that have been identified as important to the problem. (Sekaran, 2001)

 Limit scope of inquiry

 Convey research importance to audiences

 Theoretical Framework
 Conceptual Framework
 Operational Framework
 Theoretical framework

 A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to
relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study.
 The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to
the topic of research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.
 The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following
ways:

 An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
 The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge.
 Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
 Articulating the theoretical assumptions of research study forces you to address questions of why and how.
 It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to
generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
 Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations.
 A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the
need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
 Conceptual Framework

 A conceptual framework is a written or visual representation of an expected relationship

between variables.
 Variables are simply the characteristics or properties that you want to study.
 The conceptual framework is generally developed based on a literature review of existing studies
and theories about the topic.
 The main purpose of the conceptual framework is to link the theoretical and empirical elements of
a research project.
 Operational Framework
 The connections and the network that they form are your thesis' "operational framework,"
the elements that underlie how your ideas work together as a whole.
 The framework is the basis for all of your work, and importantly, you should be able to
link everything back to the framework.
1. List of Variables: an operational framework involves a list of all of the variables and individual
ideas at work in your thesis.
2. Diagram of Connections: It is important that you are able to show a visual representation of how
your ideas are connected together, within your framework. After you have a list of the variables
involved in your thesis you will need to show the connections between them.
 Operational Framework
Independent variables Dependent Variable
Factors:
Social Capital
Financial Capital
Human Capital RQ 2
Natural Capital
(Bartlett, 2002; Scoones,
1998)

RQ 3
Knowledge Acquisition
(Mathias, 1996)
Group
Formation
Demographics: RQ 4
RQ 1
Ethnicity
(Shaw, 1981;
Gender
Tuckman & Jenson,
Education 1977)

Land Holding
RQ = Research
(Esman & Uphoff, 1984)
Questions 1—4
Formulation of research problem
Section 4
 Starting the Process

37 1. Broad Topic
2. Narrow Topic
3. Focused Topic
4. Research Question
 Broad Topic
38

 The broadest area of your research interest.

 Your broad topic will help to guide your literature review.
 Make note of the dominant questions within the topic you are researching.
 Narrow Topic
39

 After some research, you can begin to narrow the topic.

 Consider:
 Relevant theories/models.
 Time period.
 Particular events.
 Geographical area.
 Biographical information – gender; age; ethnicity.
 Other aspects or fields – economic; psychological;
historical.
 Available data.
 Focused Topic
40

 Similar process to earlier step.

 You should now be familiar with the major debates.

 You should also have a good sense of what information and resources are
available.
 The Logic of Narrowing
41

 You should have logical reasons for narrowing the topic the way that you have.
 The reasons may vary – interest; under-researched areas; available data; word
limits.
 You should make your rationale clear – this usually is covered in the “significance
of study” section of your paper.
42

BROAD TOPIC
NARROW TOPIC
FOCUSED
TOPIC
RQ
 Research Question
43

 Research should allow you to realise some of the complexities of your topic.

 May have a number of sub-components to your research question.

 These should lead to a coherent paper – do not have a series of unrelated questions for the
sake of it.
 Think carefully before settling on a question.

 You should be able to explain the rationale behind the question set.
 E.g. Why did you use the methodology chosen?
 The first and most important step in any methodology is the formulation of the research
question.
 It is with this step that the researcher determines the direction and approach of analysis.
 This step involves exploration, is crucial to understanding the topic, gives an idea of the
feasibility of the research, and identifies the methods to be used (Babbie 2001, p. 92).
 A research question
44

 Starting point for investigations in the social sciences.

 Directs and focuses research.

 Dependent upon quality of question set.

 Must be focused, narrow, clear and concise.

 Set a question of genuine interest.

 Study design

 Once the researcher determines what the research will entail, it is then necessary to address
the study design.
 During this step, the unit of analysis is determined.
 The unit of analysis is often an individual or group of individuals that is sampled from the
larger population to which the researcher wishes to generalize his or her findings.
.
 Study design
 However, even if the researcher chooses to use inductive methods, it would still be necessary to
address many of the above issues.
 The study design portion of the process would involve determining sample size, who or what should
be studied, and how the study would be conducted.
 Researchers must create a framework for their study for a number of reasons, including the need to
coordinate the activities of more than one researcher and to obtain funding, among other things.
 The next step in the research process is the collection of the data.
 This is accomplished according to the framework that has already been prescribed.
 In a quantitative study, researchers will most likely use a survey or some other type of questionnaire.
 In qualitative research, a list of questions would probably be employed, along with less-structured
interviews.
 An important function of scientific inquiry is description.
 Qualitative studies in particular enable the researcher to describe situations and events in detail.
 Study design

 After the research data have been collected and organized, it is necessary to undertake the analysis.
 This may include statistical analyses of data gathered via quantitative methods, or more
straightforward descriptive analyses of data obtained via qualitative methods.
 The data are then interpreted and summarized so the results of the research will be more accessible
and available to others.
 Explanation is the natural by-product of research, and researchers hope that their projects provide
information that answers the original research question.
 A standard view of the research process

problem

generalization hypothesis

Theory & cumulative

body of verifiable
knowledge
Research design
Data analysis

Data measurement
collection

Source: C. Frankfort-Nachmias and D. Nachmias (1996, fifth edition), Research

Methods in the Social Sciences, St. Martin’s Press, New York, USA
 Steps in Research Process
Section 5

Methodology of Research In Social Sciences by O.R. Krishnaswamy

Steps in Research

1. Selection of a problem

2. Development of the Research design

3. Data Collection

4. Analysis & interpretation of the results

5. Preparation of report
Step 1: Selection of a problem for research

 1st step in research

 Problem means a question or issue to be examined
 How to choose a problem?
 One with a critical, curious & imaginative mind & is sensitive to practical
problems could easily identify problems for study
Sources of problems
Reading
Academic experience
Daily experience
Exposure to field situations
Consultations
Brainstorming
Research
Intuition
 Finding a Research Problem

Review of Literature

Reasons for review of related literature

To gain background knowledge of the research topic

To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them & to formulate
researchable hypotheses
To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts &
techniques of analysis
 Formulation Process
1. Developing Title – indicates the core of the study – reflects the real intention of the researcher –
shows what is the research focus.
2. Building a conceptual model – It reveals an exact idea of the research problem and shows the
various variables to be studied.
3.Defining Objectives of the Study – refers questions to be answered through the study – What we are
trying to get from the study. The objectives are derived from the conceptual model.
4. Formulation of Hypothesis – tentative proposition relating to investigative questions.
5. Delimiting the scope of the study
Objectives
 The objective of a research summarizes what to be achieved by the study.

 Objective should clearly define the question for which a solution is being
sought.

 To be realistic considering local conditions and available resources.

 Step 2: Research Design or Plan

 Logical & systematic plan prepared for directing a research study

Essential of a good research design
 It is plan that specifies the objectives of the study & the hypotheses to
be tested
 It is an outline that specifies the sources & types of information relevant
to the research questions
 It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering &
analysis the data
 It is a scheme defining the domain of generalizability
Contents of a Research Plan
 Introduction
 Statement of the Problem
 Review of the Previous
studies
 Scope of the study
 Objective of the study
 Hypotheses
 Operational definition of
concepts
 Significance of the study
 Geographical area to be
covered
 Reference period
 Methodology
 Sampling plan
 Tools for gathering data
 Plan of analysis
 Chapter scheme
 Step 3: Data Collection & Sampling
Sources of Data

 Primary
 Original sources from with the researcher directly collects data that have not been
previously collected
 Secondary
 Consists of not only published records & reports, but also unpublished records
Research Tools

 Schedules & Questionnaires

 Most commonly used instruments of data collection
 Schedule is filled by the interviewer in a face-face interviewing
 Questionnaire is filled by the respondent himself
 Both contain a set of questions logically related to a problem under study
 Both aiming at eliciting responses from the respondents
Methods of Primary Data Collection

Observation
Interviewing
Mail survey
Experimentation
Simulation
Projective techniques
Interviewing

 Major method of data collection

 Defined as a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator & an informant,
initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study
 It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from factual demographic data to highly
personal intimate information elating to a person's opinion, attitudes, values, beliefs, past
experience & future intentions
Types of Interviews

 Structured or directive interview

 Unstructured or non-directive
 Focused interview
 Depth interview
Sampling

 Representativeness
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Size
 Sampling
 Area Sampling
 an area to be sampled is sub-divided into smaller blocks that are then selected at random and then
again sub-sampled or fully surveyed
 Multi-stage Sampling
 instead of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters, the researcher randomly selects
elements from each cluster
 Sequential Sampling
 non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a single or a group of subjects in a
given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results then picks another group of subjects if
needed and so on
 Quota Sampling
 a population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling
 This means that individuals can put a demand on who they want to sample (targeting)
 Field Work
 Locating Sampling frame
 Selection of a sample eg. Household, firm, etc.
 Sample selection: as per the planned sampling design

 Field administration involves

 Field work scheduling & monitoring
 Supervision
 Field work review
 Step 4: Analysis & Interpretation

 Editing: complete schedules/ questionnaires

 Classification & coding: responses are classified into meaningful
categories
 Transcription: depends on the method of tabulation
 Tabulation: process of summarizing raw data & displaying them on
compact statistical tables for further analysis
 Step 5: Report Writing
I. Introduction
a. Introduction
b. Statement of the problem
c. Objectives of the study
d. Research methodology
e. Collection of data
f. Framework of analysis
g. Limitations of the study
h. Chapter scheme
II Review of Literature
III Background chapter
IV Analysis of data
V Summary, findings, conclusion & suggestions
Bibliography
Appendices (questionnaires, tables, etc)
 Review of literature
Section 6

https://www.stcloudstate.edu/writeplace/_files/documents/powerpoints/literature-review.ppt
 A literature review – A Definition
 “Is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers” (Dena
Taylor, Director, Health Sciences Writing Centre,and Margaret Procter, Coordinator, Writing Support,
University of Toronto).
 “Discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a
particular subject area within a certain time period” (University of North Carolina website).
 “A Literature Review Surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources (e.g., dissertations,
conference proceedings) relevant to a topic. . . . Its purpose is to demonstrate that the writer has
insightfully and critically surveyed relevant literature on his or her topic in order to convince an
intended audience that the topic is worth addressing” (from Writing the Successful Thesis and
Dissertation: Entering the Discussion By Irene L. Clark)
 A literature review is NOT . . .

 An annotated bibliography
 A list of seemingly unrelated sources
 A literary survey containing author’s bio, lists of works, summaries of
sources
 Background information or explanations of concepts
 An argument for the importance of your research (although the LR can
and often does support your position)
 Prewriting Stages
 Formulate the problem or primary research question —which topic or field is
being examined and what are its component issues?
 Choose literature —find materials relevant to the subject being explored and
determine which literature makes a significant contribution to the
understanding of the topic .
 Analyze and interpret —note the findings and conclusions of pertinent
literature, how each contributes to your field .
 Organizing/Outlining
Methods for organizing the Lit Review
 By subject (if lit review covers more than one subject)
 Chronologically
 By theme, idea, trend, theory, or major research studies
 By author
 By argumentative stance

In all methods, relationships between elements (e.g., subject, theme, author, etc.) must be
shown.
 Beginning the Writing

 Introduce your LR by
 Defining or explaining the primary problem addressed by the lit review, or if the LR is part of a larger work
like a thesis or dissertation, explain the problem it addresses.
OR
 Explaining main conflict(s) in the literature
OR
 Explaining the time frame you will review
OR
 Offer a rationale for your choice of source material
OR
 Using all or some of the points above.

 A Lit Review must have its own thesis (e.g., More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting
popular media as a subject worthy of academic consideration; others scoff at the very idea).
 Body of the LR

 Use subheadings if dividing the LR topically, thematically, according to

argumentative perspective, or according to time period.
 Be sure to show relationships between sources.
 Discuss source’s significant contributions.
 Do not develop ideas or use sources that are irrelevant to your thesis overall.
 References to prior studies should be in past tense; references to narrative or text
other than studies should be in present tense.
 Concluding the LR

 Summarize ideas, conflicts, themes, or historical (or chronological) periods.

 Contextualize your topic within the summary.
 Point out gap(s) in scholarship and, show how your research helps fill the gap(s).
 Transition to your next chapter.t
 Process of writing the thesis -Layout of research report -
Preliminaries, contents of the report, appendices,
bibliography
Section 7

https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/frenchitalian/_files/WritingProposals.ppt

https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/research-methodology-tutorial-355/layout-of-the-
research-report-11588.html
 Introduction/Background

 Establish the general territory (real world or research).

 Describe the broad foundations of your study—provide sufficient background
for readers.
 Indicate the general scope of your project.
 Provide an overview of the sections that will appear in your proposal (optional).
 Engage the readers.
 Statement of the Problem

 Answer the question: “What is the gap that needs to be filled?”

and/or “What is the problem that needs to be solved?”
 State the problem clearly early in a paragraph.
 Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or
question.
 Consider framing the problem as a question.
 Purpose/Aims/Rationale/Research Questions

 Explain the goals and research objectives of the study.

 Show the original contributions of your study.
 Provide a more detailed account of the points summarized in the introduction.
 Include a rationale for the study.
 Be clear about what your study will not address.
In addition, this section may:
 Describe the research questions and/or hypotheses of the study.
 Include a subsection defining important terms.
 State limitations of the research.
 Provide a rationale for the particular subjects of the study.
Review of Literature
Writing the literature review allows you to understand:

 How other scholars have written about your topic.

 The range of theories used to analyze materials or data
 How other scholars connect their specific research topics to larger issues, questions, or practices
within the field.
 The best methodologies and research techniques for your particular topic.
 Situates the current study within a wider disciplinary conversation.
 Illustrates the uniqueness, importance of and need for your particular project.
 Justifies methodological choices.
 Demonstrates familiarity with the topic and appropriate approaches to studying it.
 Categorize the literature into recognizable topic clusters:
 stake out the various positions that are relevant to your project,
 build on conclusions that lead to your project, or
 demonstrate the places where the literature is lacking.
Writing Literature Reviews: Key Point

 You are entering a scholarly conversation already in progress. The literature review shows that
you’ve been listening and that you have something valuable to say.

 After assessing the literature in your field, you should be able to answer the following
questions:
 Why should we study (further) this research topic/problem?
 What contributions will my study make to the existing literature?
 Methodology
 Introduce the overall methodological approach.
 Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design.
 Describe the specific methods of data collection.
 Explain how you intend to analyze and interpret your results (i.e. statistical analysis, theoretical framework).
 If necessary, provide background and rationale for unfamiliar methodologies.
 Address potential limitations.
 Break down your methodology into subsections.
 In the social sciences, these sections may include selection of participants, interview process, profiles,
interpretive and analytic framework, methods of qualitative analysis, etc.
 In the humanities, these sections may include scholarly research, archival research, theoretical orientation, etc.
 Remember that your methods section may also require supporting literature.
 Anticipate and pre-empt the audience’s methodological concerns.
 Acknowledge major problems.
 Justify your approach by showing how benefits outweigh potential problems.
 Significance/Implications

 Discuss the methodological, substantive, and/or theoretical contribution.

 State the practical and/or theoretical importance of the problem and/or objectives of your
study.
 Explain the usefulness or benefits of the study to both the outside world and the research
community.
 Bibliography & Appendices

 Include a working bibliography of key texts that inform your study and methodology.
 Your appendices may include Experiment Diagrams, Permissions for Human Subject
Testing, etc.
 Both bibliographies and required appendices tend to be discipline specific: know what the
requirements are.
 Layout of the report

 The Research report layout must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in
its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how
seriously the findings are to be taken.
 For this purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report.
 The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain.
 A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise preliminary pages, the main text and the
end matter.
 Preliminary Pages

 In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the
form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’.
 Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-
maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.
 Main Text
 The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details.
 Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page.
 Each main section of the report should begin on a new page.
 The main text of the report should have the following sections:
 Introduction
 Statement of findings and recommendations
 The results
 The implications drawn from the results; and
 The summary.
 Introduction:
 The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers.
 It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be
given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating.
 A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in
that context.
 The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study
should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
 Methodology
 The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained.
 The scientific reader would like to know
 in detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design?
 If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations?
 If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were
asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)?
 If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers?
 Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many
were there?
 How were they selected?
 All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the findings.
 The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated.
 In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated.
 The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.
 Results:
 A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and
charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report.
 This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters.
 The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather
than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily
identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report.
 But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question.
 Quite often guidance comes primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any,
with which the study was concerned.
 But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report.
“Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the
procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for
his conclusions.
 Implications of the results:
 Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his research
clearly and precisely.
 He should, state the implications that flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is
interested in the implications for understanding the human behaviour.
 A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar
circumstances.
 The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the
inferences drawn from the study.
 The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with
suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is considered a good
practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarises and recapitulates the main points
of the study.
 The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the
introductory section.
 At the same time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of
research which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
 Summary:

 It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major
findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
 End Matter
 At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
 Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given.
 Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a
book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the
report.
 The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
 Style manuals
Section 8

https://libguides.rowan.edu/c.php?g=483141&p=3307043#:~:text=Style
%20manuals-,Using%20style%20manuals,the%20text%20of%20your%20paper.
 Style manuals

 All academic research builds on the work that went before it.
 No matter what your research subject, it is very important to appropriately credit the sources of the
ideas that you express in your papers.
 All academic papers need to include a Bibliography, Works Cited, or List of References, with in-text
citations that refer to the identified sources.
 However, various academic disciplines have different conventions for what style to use.
 The University/publisher usually tell you what citation style expects you to use.
 The most common citation styles used MLA, Chicago and APA.
 Using style manuals

 When your instructor/university/publisher tells you to use a particular citation style for a research
paper, the style manual tells you how.
 Style manuals provide rules for correctly formatting a "works cited" list (also known as a bibliography)
and for how to properly cite your sources in the text of your paper.
 Electronic format
 Chicago Manual of Style online
 Chicago style, sometimes called Turabian, is commonly used in writing about Business and Music
 AMA Manual of Style
 For decades indispensable, the AMA Manual of Style continues to provide editorial support to the medical and scientific
publishing community.
 Since the 1998 publication of the 9th edition, however, the world of medical publishing has rapidly modernized, and the
intersection of research and publishing has become ever more complex.
 The 10th edition of the AMA Manual of Style brings this definitive manual into the 21st century with a broadened
international perspective.
 MLA Handbook 9th edition
 The ninth edition of the MLA Handbook is a textbook and reference guide that offers student writers and writing instructors
guidance on creating works-cited-list entries in MLA style using the template of core elements.
 It features advice on punctuation, grammar, inclusive language, formatting research papers, and in-text citations. Includes an
appendix of sample works-cited-list entries, illustrations, and an index
 Print format
 Associated Press Stylebook
 Used in print Journalism
 Chicago Manual of Style (print)
 Chicago style, sometimes called Turabian, is commonly used in writing about Business and Music
 Council of Science Editors Manual (print)
 CSE style is most often used in writing about Science; use IEEE format for writing about Engineering
 Modern Language Association Style Manual (print)
 MLA style is commonly used in writing about English Literature and Modern Languages
 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (print)
 APA style is commonly used in writing about Psychology, History, Education, and Social Sciences
Criteria for the evaluation of research
Section 9

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41963/1/Unit-4.pdf
 Evaluation of research report
 An understanding of the criteria for evaluation of research report is reinforcement of the
understanding of the entire process, techniques and tools of research.
 Evaluation of research reports is carried out for various purposes including award of degree in the
case of research leading to a Master degree like MA(DE) or M.Phil/Ph.D.
 As in any evaluation, we need a set of criteria for evaluating the quality of a research report. It is
necessary, because the criteria help us to:
• Judge the adequacy of the research report;
• Guide the researcher to undertake research in a planned manner;
• Identify previous research that may require further validation by using a different tool or a different setting; and
• Guide the preparation of a good research report
 Introductory Chapter

 The test of the quality of an introductory

chapter is its ability to convince the reader
and the reviewer that the problem chosen is
• Relevant,
• Important,
• Timely,
• Researchable, and
• Within the competence of the researcher.
 Should these criteria be fulfilled, the chapter
on introduction should be considered to have
done well
 Review of Literature

 A reviewer need to check out whether the researcher has indeed identified
 Gaps
 Overlaps and
 Contradictions
 Objectives and Hypotheses
 The major attributes of well written objectives are:
1. Clarity of expression and direction  For the purpose of evaluation, it is
important to examine whether
2. Measurability
 The choice of hypotheses – null or
3. Comprehensiveness directional, was logical and whether the
researcher has adequately argued out his/her
4. Judiciousness case;
 The hypotheses are testable;
 The hypotheses are stated clearly indicating
one to one relationship between two (or
more) variables; and
 In case of a multi-variate situation, the
relationship of the cluster of independent
variables vis-à-vis the criterion variable is
well defined
 Choice of Research Design

 Thus an evaluator of a research report needs to

examine the appropriateness of the choice of
research design vis-à-vis the research objectives.
 The details of the design, e.g. type of experimental
design etc. too have to be evaluated.
 Equally important is the argument put forward by
the researcher in deciding the research design
 Choice of Variables

 Hence, an important consideration in evaluation is

how meticulously the variables have been identified
and classified under the three categories mentioned
above.
 The second important consideration in this case is
whether the researcher has provided operational
definitions of at least such variables as do not have a
standard meaning in the literature.
 The third important consideration is whether there are
clear indications of the measurability of variables
 Research Instrumentation
 The points to be borne in mind while evaluating
research instruments are the following
 1. Whether the researcher has chosen an
instrument that can actually measure the variables.
 2. Whether the research instrument has been
picked up from an existing stock or has been
constructed by the researcher.
 3. Whether the researcher has tested the feasibility
of the use of instrument.
 4. Besides these three criteria, research instruments
can be examined from the angle of language,
communication, provision of recording response
by the respondents
 Sample

 As an evaluator what is to be considered is: whether the sample size

is large enough for the study and the sample size has been
determined scientifically?
 The important point to check here is whether the researcher has
identified the right and relevant criteria for stratification and sub-
stratification of the population; and then developed a sampling
frame to choose a stratified random sample, using appropriate
randomization
 Data Collection and Analysis

 The points to check here are whether the researcher has

categorically recorded the details of data collection:
 research instruments administered personally or by a
representative or by mail,
 sources and authenticity of secondary data, and
 the kind of problems that the data might have in terms of quality.
 Findings and Implications
 This is where an evaluator examines the analytical skill of a researcher, the skill of extrapolation, the
skill of observing and explaining relationships between two or more variables, etc.
Summary and Conclusions

 Brevity with comprehensiveness is the rule of the game for this chapter.
 An evaluator often examines within the small space of a summary how a researcher has
built the rationale, how he/she has documented the objectives, hypotheses, research
methodology and findings
Referencing

 At the very elementary level, it is necessary to check whether all the information has been
provided. It has also to be checked whether the information provided is in one of the
standard forms.
 It has to be seen if the references are indexed, i
Annexures

 Thus the check points are the comprehensiveness and serialization of the annexures
 General Indicators
 Besides the important points we discussed in the preceding pages, there are issues that
need to be considered such as language, typographical errors, presentation, etc. Some of
these issues are:
 Language and expression including correctness of syntax, spelling, etc.
 Typing, word processing and printing of the report – readability including margins, line spacing,
type font and size, placement of tables, diagrams, illustrations and graphs.
 Binding and overall get up
Best wishes!