STATES OF

MATTER
Gases, Liquids and Solids
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and
Solids
■ Liquids and solids are condensed states.
■ Liquids
– Have definite volume and assume the shape
of its container
– Much denser than gases
– Are more difficult to compress than gases
– Molecules
■ are close together
■ little of empty space between molecules
■ are held together by attractive
intermolecular forces
■ are in constant motion
■ Move/slide one past another freely so
liquid can flow
■ collision rate is higher than in gases
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids
and Solids
■ Solids
– Almost uncompressible
– Definite shape and volume
– Most solids are denser than liquids
– Particles
■ are more closely packed than in liquids
■ are arranged in highly organized order
■ Are always in constant motion
■ vibrate around fixed locations
■ Held together by strong intermolecular
forces.
Structure of Solids
■ Most of solids are crystalline.
■ Particles are arranged in an
orderly, repeating, three-
dimensional pattern.
■ The shape of the crystal
depends on the arrangement of
the particles within it.
■ The smallest group of particles
within the crystal that retains
the geometric shape of the
crystal is called a unit cell.
■ A crystal lattice is a repeating
pattern of unit cells.
Amorphous solids
■ Amorphous means without any defined form or
structure.
■ Amorphous solids: Glass, plastic,
Allotropes (more then one form
depending on structure) of Carbon

Diamond Graphite
Intermolecular Forces (IMF)
■ Are attractive forces between molecules
■ Are much stronger in liquids and solids than in gases.
■ The more polar molecules are the stronger
intermolecular forces are.
■ Strength of intermolecular forces determines the state
of matter.
■ Energy is required to break IMF and change states of
matter.
■ Melting and boiling points of any substance depend on
strength of IMF in the substance.
Strength of Intermolecular Forces (IMF)
■ Metallic bond (in metals)
■ Ionic bond (in ionic compounds)
■ Hydrogen bond (in water and
some other compounds) Strength
■ Van der Waals forces (dipole-dipole, dispersion)
– Interaction between partial charges in polar covalent
molecules
– The more polar molecules are the stronger
intermolecular forces are.
 Metallic Solids/Metallic Bond
■ Metallic solids are
composed of metal atoms
that are held together by
metallic bonds.  
■ The electrons in metallic
solids are delocalized.  
■ It means that valence
electrons move freely
between metallic cations.
■ A good picture of a metal
solid is that of cation in a
sea of electrons. 
Phase Changes

Strength of the Intermolecular Forces

Phase Changes (state of matter changes)
State Changes Simulations
■ https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/states-of-matter
Phase Changes
■ Vaporization is the process in which liquid is transformed into a
gas.
■ Condensation is the process by which a gas or a vapor becomes
a liquid
■ Melting (fusion) is the process of solid becoming a liquid.
■ Freezing (solidification) is the process when a liquid becomes a
solid.
■ Sublimation is the change of substance from a solid to a vapor
without passing through the liquid state.
■ Deposition is the process by which a gas or a vapor turns
straight into a solid.
Kinetic Molecular Theory and
Phase Changes
What happens to IMF in the
process of melting?
 Melting
■ As solid absorbs heat particles of solid vibrate faster
■ IMF are getting weaker (energy is required to weaken the IMFs)
■ The distance between particles increases
■ During the process of melting energy is spent to weaken IMF
between particles and increase distance between particles.
 Melting Point, Freezing
■
Point
The melting point is the
temperature at which
solid turns into a liquid.
■ The freezing point is the
temperature at which the
liquid turns into a solid.
■ Tmeltng = T freezing
■ Melting point depends on
the strength of IMF in a
substance
 Vaporization

Evaporation Boiling
Vaporization (evaporation and
boiling)
■ Vaporization is the process in
which liquid is transformed
into a gas.
■ How does this process happen?
■ What do we know about liquids
and gases that will help us to
analyze the process?
■ Liquids have quite strong IMFs
between particles.
■ Gasses have not IMF between
particles.
■ To leave the liquid phase and
get to the gas phase particles
need to break IMFs that holds
them within the liquid
Vaporization (evaporation and
boiling)
■ Molecules with sufficient
kinetic energy
– overcome
intermolecular forces
and
– escape from the liquid
into gas phase,
– vapor over the surface
of the liquid is created.
■ Vaporization rate depends
on temperature.
■ the higher the temperature,
the greater kinetic energy
of particles, more particles
are leaving the liquid.
Vaporization Rate
■ Vaporization rate
depends on temperature.
– the higher the
temperature,
– the greater kinetic
energy of particles,
– more particles are
leaving the liquid.
Vaporization (evaporation and
boiling) as endothermic process
■ Particles with higher kinetic energy leave the liquid phase

■ Particles with lower kinetic energy stay in the liquid phase.

■ Temperature of the liquid decreases during vaporization.

Why?

■ Constant supply of energy is needed to break IMFs and

support vaporization.

■ Vaporization is an endothermic process (energy is

consumed).
 Evaporation
■ Evaporation happens
– at the surface of a
liquid,
– at any temperature.
 Equilibrium
■ What is equilibrium?
■ Equilibrium - a state of
balance between opposite
processes.
■ https
://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
re9r0kzQp_M
■ Some molecules evaporate,
■ Some molecules condense by
returning to the liquid phase.
■ Equilibrium is established.
■ During condensation
molecules strike the liquid
surface and become trapped
by intermolecular forces in
the liquid.
 Boiling
■ When a liquid is
heated to a
temperature when all
molecules have enough
kinetic energy to
vaporize, the liquid
begins to boil.
■ Boiling happens
– at a boiling point,
– Vapor forms within
the liquid.
■ What is in the bubble?
Boiling
■ At the boiling
point bubbles
of vapor form
within the
liquid.
■ The pressure
within the
bubble is due to
the vapor
pressure .

■ When vapor pressure in the bubble equals external pressure, the

bubble rises to the surface of the liquid and bursts.
 Vapor Pressure
■ Vapor pressure is a
pressure of vapor
particles exerted on the
walls of a container.
■ An increase in the
temperature of a liquid
increases the vapor
pressure.
Boiling Point, Vapor Pressure, and
Atmospheric Pressure
Analyze the diagram
Boiling Point (temp. of boiling)
■ The boiling point is the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external
pressure.
 Normal Boiling Point
■ Normal boiling point is a boiling point when the
external/atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
Vapor Pressure vs. Temperature
 Boiling Point
Summary
■ Boiling Point depends on
– Strength of
intermolecular forces
in a substance
– External/atmospheric
pressure
 Boiling: analyze the process from
the point of IMF
■ Liquids have quite strong IMFs
■ Gasses have no IMFs
■ Particles of liquid should break IMFs to move from the liquid
phase to the gas phase.
■ Energy is required to break IMFs.
Boiling
■ Boiling is a process that takes time and energy.
■ Why do we need to supply energy all the time to support
boiling? Try to think about the process considering
kinetic energies of particles in a liquid.
■ When particles with higher kinetic energy leave the liquid

■ the temperature of the liquid decreases,

■ constant supply of energy is needed to break IMFs and

support boiling temperature.

■ Boiling is an endothermic process.

Vaporization
Heating Curve of Water
Heating Curve (at 1 atm pressure)
 Heating Curve
■ Heating Curve shows
how the temperature is
changing through the
phase transition with
energy (heat) change.
 Solid Phase
■ Only solid is present
■ Heat is added.
■ Temperature of the solid
is increasing
■ Kinetic energy of the
particles in the solid is
increasing.
■ Particles within the solid
vibrate faster.
 Melting
■ Phase change: a solid turns
into a liquid.
■ Solid and liquid are
present at the same time.
■ Although the heat is
added, the temperature
does not change.
■ Energy is spent to weaken
intermolecular forces of
attraction between the
particles.
■ Distances between
particles are increasing.
 Liquid Phase
■ Only liquid is present
■ Heat is added.
■ Temperature of the
liquid is increasing.
■ Kinetic energy of the
particles is increasing.
■ Particles move faster.
 Boiling
■ Phase change: liquid turns
in gas (vapor)
■ Liquid and gas are present
at the same time.
■ Heat is added, but the
temperature does not
change.
■ Energy is spent on breaking
intermolecular forces of
attraction between particles.
■ Distances between particles
are increasing.
 Gas Phase
■ Only gas is present.
■ Heat is added.
■ Temperature is
increasing.
■ Kinetic energy of the
particles is increasing.
■ Particles move faster.
Heating Curve of an Unknown
Substance
Phase Diagram
 Phase Diagram
■ A phase diagram summarizes the conditions at which a
substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.
■ Each region on diagram represent a pure phase (solid,
liquid, or gas/vapor)
■ Line between two regions indicates conditions under which two
phases (states of matter) can exist in equilibrium (at the same
time).
■ The point at which all three curves meet is called the
triple point.
Triple Point
■ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLRqpJN9zeA
■ The triple point is the only condition under which
all three phases (solid, liquid, and gas) exist at the
same time.
■ The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid
boils when the external pressure is 1 atm.
■ The normal melting point is the temperature at which solid melts
when the external pressure is 1 atm.
Critical point is temperature and pressure at
which liquid and gas become undistinguishable:
supercritical fluid.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEr3NxsPTOA
Phase Diagram for CO2
■ The carbon dioxide is stored in large tanks as
liquid carbon dioxide. Assuming we lived at sea
level (1 atm), how could carbon dioxide be
liquefied?
At 1 atmosphere and room temperature (250C),
would you expect solid carbon dioxide to melt to the
liquid phase, or sublime to the gas phase?
Albuquerque is 5,500 feet above sea level, which means the
normal atmospheric pressure is less than 1 atm. In
Albuquerque, will water freeze at a lower temperature or a
higher temperature than at 1 atmosphere?
At a constant temperature, what would you do
to cause this substance to change from the
liquid phase to the solid phase?