CELL

Assoc. Prof. Hanife ÖZKAYALAR M.D.

■ The term «cell» comes from Lati Word celia meaning small
room
■ Cells are the basicunits of complex organism
■ Similar or relate cellsare grouped together to form tissue
■ The human body is composed of organs + skeleton
■ The cells has organelles, cytoskeleton, and inclusions.
Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

■ Only in bacteria
■ Larger and have a distinct
■ Smaller in size
nucleus containing
■ Have a cell Wall
DNAand histons
■ No nuclear membrane or
histons surrounded by a nuclear
■ No membraneous envelope
organelles
■ Human have only
eukaryotic cells
The cytoplasm

■ It is surrounded by plasma membrane

■ Composed of a matrix or cytosol
■ The organelles and inclusions are embedded in the cytoplasm
Plasma membrane:

■ It is not visible with LM, and seen only by EM.

■ About 8-10µm thich

■ It is known also the unit membrane.

■ Composed of lipid (bilayer) arranged as a phospholipid bilayer +

proteins + corbohydrates (glycolipids or glycoproteins)
■ The phosholipid molecule has a hydrophilic head oriented
toward extracellular or intracellular compartments, and a
hydrophobic head oriented toward the inside of the membrane
Function of plasma membrane

■ Protect the structural integrity of the cell

■ Controlling movements of substances in and out of the cells

■ Regulating cell-cell interactions

■ Recognition of antigen, foreing cells via receptors.

■ Establising transport systems for specific molecules

■ Signals transduction

■ Membrane modifications help to form cellular junctions,

microvili, and cilia

■ Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and exocytosis

■ Exocytosis: It is the removal of the contents out of the cell after
the membrane-enclosed structures fuse with the cell membrane.
Endocytosis:

■ During endocytosis, cells take in substances by invaginating a

portion of the plasma membrane and forming a vesicle around
the substance.

■ Endocytosis occurs as;

– Phagocytosis: for solid particles

– Pinocytosis: engulfing fluids (cell drinking)

– Receptor- mediated endocytosis: specific particles

Mitochondria:

■ They are self-replicating membranous organelles; filamentous or

spherical or oval shape

■ They are usually found where metabolic activity is high

■ They have an outer smooth and an inner irregular folded

membrane (cristae)

■ The space found in between is termed the intermembrane space

■ The inner surface hav stalked particles protruding inward

■ The matrix space contains mitochondrial DNA and a feew

ribosomes.

■ They release energy → ATP, thustermed the powerhouse of the

cells

■ They breakdown glucose, producing NADH and ATP

■ Mitochondria contain the genetic codes for synthesis of some of

their own protein
Ribosomes:

■ Small particles, 12 nm wide and 25 nm long

■ Main function: Protein synthesis

■ Each ribosome is composed of a large and small subunit

■ Composed of proteins and ribosomal RNA, which are

manufactured in nucleolus.
■ Ribosomes are held together by a strand of mRNA →
polyribosomes

■ Ribosomes are several types of RNA but you need to recognize

3 types:

i. mRNA

ii. rRNA

iii. tRNA
Endoplasmic reticulum

■ A system of interconnected tubules and vesicles whose lümen is

termed cisternae

■ It is either: rough or smooth

■ It may be covered by polyribosomes synthesis protein

molecules: rough endoplasmic reticulum (gER)

■ May no have ribosomes: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

(sER)
Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
■ Increase in cells having high protein secretion

■ Limited by 2 membrane

■ Sometimes continuous with the outer nuclear membrane

■ Functions:

i. Synthesis of proteins

ii. Post-translational modifications of proteins

iii. Storage and transport of proteins

Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum

Differs from rER in: Functions:

 No attached ribosomes  Synthesize steroid hormones

& phospholipids for all cell
 Its cisternae are more
membrane
tubular
 Oxidation, conjugation and
methylation processes.
Golgi apparatus:

■ Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1843-1926)

■ Modifications and sorting of proteins manufactured on the RER

■ Composedof series of flattened, slightly curved cisternae

■ The periphery of each cisternae is dilated and show vesicles that

are fusing with or budding off.
■ Golgi apparatus have immature, convex or entry face + mature,
concave or exit face

■ rER release the transport vesicles to join the immature face,

whilethe mature face releases the condensing vacuoles
Lysosomes:

■ Usually spherical membranous vesicles

■ Contain more than 40 of hydrolytic ezymes for intracellular

digestion

■ Increase in cells with high phagocytic activity

■ If it was not previously involved in digestion, it is called

primary lysosomes

■ If it is involved in digestion, it is called secondary lysosome

Peroxisomes (microbodies)

■ They derive their name from peroxide+ soma

■ They are smallapherical membranous bodies

■ Deficiency of peroxisomal enzymes → Zellweger syndrome:

severe fatal multi-organ impairment
ÇEKİRDEK
Microtubule organizing
centers
■ They help in polymerizationof tubulins to form microtubules
■ They include:
1. Centriole
2. Basal bodies
3. Centromeres of chromosomes
Centrioles

■ Small, paired cylindrical structures, perpendicular to each other

near Golgi appartus

■ In the S phase, each centriole duplicates itself →two pairs and

starts the spindle formation.

■ Composed of 9 triplets of microtubules arranged around a

central axis, connected to each other by a fibrous substances
Flagella & Cilia

■ Microtubular motile processes.

■ The cilia are multipl processes, range from 2 to 10µm in lenght

■ The flagellum is a single process, ranges in lenght from100 to

200 µm in lenght

■ Their core consists of 9 pairs of microtubules (9x2) and 2 central

tubules
Cytoskeleton:

■ A network of protein flaments

■ Responsible for keeping the cell morphology help in cellular
motion
■ Consist of
i. Microtubules
ii. Thin flaments
iii. İntermediate filaments
 Intermediate filaments:
• Glial filaments in the astrocytes
• Neurofilaments consist of several
polypeptides in the nerve cells

Microtubules: Thin or Micro-filaments

■ Tubular structes consist of
and α & β tubulin
■ Their synthesis is
controlled bythe
microtubule organizing
centers.
■ Keep the cell shape
■ Mainly contractile thin
(actin) and thick (myosin)
filaments in the skeletal
muscle
■ Help in moving
cytoplasmic components
Cytosol

■ The remaining materials after separation of organelles from the

cytoplasm → is called the cytosol

■ It occupies about ½ total volume or the cell

■ It is viscid, contain proteins, enzymes and all materials of

protein synthesis
Nucleus:

■ The largest organelle of the cell, usually in the cell center

■ It has a nuclear membrane and contains 3 main components:

i. Chromatin

ii. Nucleolus

iii. Nucleoplasm
The nuclear envelope

■ Consist of paralel membranes separeted by a narrow space

called perinuclear cisterna

■ A thin layer of heterochromatin lines the internal surface of the

nuclear envelope
Nucleoplasma (Nuclear
matrix)
■ It is a fluid «viscous or amorphous material»

■ Consist of mainly of water, proteins, dissolvedions, and a variety

of other substances (nucleic asids and minerals)
Nucleus

■ The inner membrane is cosely associated with the fibrous lamina

■ The outer membrane is sometimes continuous with the rER

■ The nuclear chromatin consist of DNA bound to histons and

some unknown proteins.
The Nucleolus

■ Small non-membranous, intranuclear dense area

■ Contain RNA and proteins

■ The nucleolus synthesis rRNAforming ribosomes

■ The newly formed ribosomal subunits are exported to the

cytoplasm via nuclear pore
During the cell division, the chromatin becomes organised into
46 chromosomes.

22pairsof somatic chromosomes + 1 pair sex chromosomes

CELL CYCLE:
■ The cell cycle consist of
successive phase termed G1
(gap 1), S (synthesis), G2
(gap 2) and M (mitosis)
phases.

■ Interphase is the phase

between 2 successive
divisions and normally
equals
 The G2 phase:
 Relatively short
 Accumulation of proteins
required for mitosis

The G1 Phase The S Phase

■ Thelongest and most ■ DNA relication
variable
■ Histone synthesis
■ RNA and protein synthesis
■ Begining of centrosome
■ The cell volüme returns to duplication
its original size
Mitosis:

■ In 1879 Flemming describes chromosomes behavior during mitosis

■ Occurs in 4 stages:

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase
Prophase:

■ Chromosomes an sister chromatids are visible

■ Nucleoli disappear

■ Mitotic spindle forms

■ Centrosomes move
Metaphase

■ Centrosomes at opposite poles

■ Centromers are aligned

■ Kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules

(spindle)
Anaphase

■ Paired centromeres separate; sister chromatids are liberated

■ Chromosomes move opposite poles

■ Each pole now has a complete set of chromosomes.

Telophase

■ Daughter nuclei form

■ Nuclear envelopes arise

■ Chromatin becomes less coiled

■ Two new nuclei complete mitosis