05 Chapter 14 Solutions

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
PRINCIPLES AND MODERN APPLICATIONS

ELEVENTH EDITION
PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE
Solutions and their Physical 14

Properties
PHILIP DUTTON
UNIVERSITY OF WINDSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY
Slide 14 - 1 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

CONTENTS
Solutions and their
Physical Properties 14-1 Types of Solutions: Some
Terminology
14-2 Solution Concentration
14-3 Intermolecular Forces and the

Solution Process
14-4 Solution Formation and
Equilibrium
14-5 Solubilities of Gases
14-6 Vapor Pressures of Solutions
14-7 Osmotic Pressure

14-8 Freezing-Point Depression and
Boiling-Point Elevation of
Nonelectrolyte Solutions
14-9 Solutions of Electrolytes
14-10 Colloidal Mixtures

Mixtures
Slide 3 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Mixtures

Mixtures

Mixtures

Mixtures

Mixtures

Mixtures are heterogeneous
Particles are temporarily

dispersed but tend to separate
Mixtures have regions of one

substance and other regions
of another.
Liquid mixtures are not clear

because the interfaces
between the regions scatter
light

14-1 Types of Solution: Some Terminology
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures and are uniform throughout.

Solvent.
Determines the state of matter in which the solution exists.
Is the largest component.
Solutes
Other solution components said to be dissolved in the solution.

14-2 Solution Concentration.
Mass Percent, Volume Percent,
and Mass/Volume Percent
Mass Percent (m/m)

Volume Percent (v/v)
Mass/Volume percent (m/v)
Isotonic saline is prepared by dissolving

0.9 g of NaCl in 100 mL of water
and is said to be:
0.9% NaCl (mass/volume)

Parts per Million, Parts per Billion,
and Parts per Trillion
Very low solute concentrations are expressed as:
ppm: parts per million

(µg/g, mg/L)
ppb: parts per billion
(ng/g, µg/L)
ppt: parts per trillion
(pg/g, ng/L)
note that 1.0 L × 1.0 g/mL = 1000 g

ppm, ppb, and ppt are properly m/m or v/v.

Mole Fraction and Mole Percent
Amount of component i (in moles)

𝜒i
= Total amount of all components (in
moles)
𝜒 i + 𝜒j + 𝜒 k + … = 1
Mole % i = 𝜒i×100%

Molarity
Amount of solute (in moles)

Molarity (c) =
Volume of solution (in liters)

Molality
Amount of solute (in moles)

Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent (in kilograms)

Examples:
H2S is toxic at concentrations of 10 ppm. Calculate the amount
of hydrogen sulfide in L and in g that can be released in a lab of
15.0 m length, 10.0 m width, and 3.0 m height without
exceeding this concentration.
(It will still not be safe to do this outside the fume hood because the local
concentration of H2S(g) close to the reaction vessel will be initially much higher.)
Vlab = 15.0 m x 10.0 m x 3.0 m = 450 m3
VH S = 450 m3 x 10/106 = 4.5 103 m3 = 4.5 L

2
mH S = M x n = M x PV/RT
2
= (32.06 g/mol + 2 x 1.007 g/mol) x 1.0 atm x 4.5

L / (0.08205 L atm K1 mol1 x 298.1 K)
= 6.3 g
Examples:
Calculate molarity, molality and mole fraction of

hydrochloric acid that is 38.00% by mass. The density of
HCl(conc) is 1.1886 g/cm3.

Molarity
C=nsolute/Vsolution d=m/V n=m/M m=nsolute/msolvent =nsolute/ntot
C = nsolute / Vsolution = 12.39 mol/L = 12.39 M
1)Start with V = 1.000 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3
2)nsolute = msolute / Msolute = 451.668 g / 36.4606 g/mol = 12.3878 mol
3) Msolute = 35.4527 g/mol + 1.0079 g/mol =36.4606 g/mol

= 1,188.6 g x 0.3800 = 451.668 g
4)msolute = msolution x mass%
=1.1886 g/cm3 x 1000 cm3 = 1,188.6 g
5)msolution = dsolution x Vsolution
Molality
m = nsolute / msolvent
msolvent = msolution  msolute = 1,188.6 g68 g = 736.932 g
m = 12.3878 mol / 0.736932 kg = 16.81 m

Mol fraction
= nsolute/nsolute + nsolvent
nsolvent = 736.932 g / 18.0152 g/mol = 40.9061 mol
= 12.3878 mol / (12.3878 mol + 40.9061 mol) = 0.2324

Can it be done with less calculation?
C = nsolute / Vsolution = msolute / (Msolute x Vsolution)
= msolution x mass% / (Msolute x Vsolution)
= d x Vsolution x mass% / (Msolute x Vsolution)
C = d x mass% / Msolute
= 1.1886 g/cm3 x 1000 cm3/L x 0.3800 / 36.4606 g/mol =
= 12.39 mol/L
Molality
m = nsolute / msolvent
= msolute / (Msolute (msolution – msolute))
= msolution x mass% / (Msolute (msolution – msolution x mass% ))
m = mass% / (Msolute (1–mass% ))
= 0.3800 / (36.4606 g/mol x 0.6200) = 0.0168100 mol/g
= 16.81 mol/kg = 16.81 m

Mol fraction
solute = nsolute / ntot
= nsolute/(nsolute + nsolvent) = 1/(1+ nsolvent / nsolute) =
= 1/(1+ msolvent / Msolvent x Msolute / msolute)
= 1/(1+ msolvent / msolute x Msolute / Msolvent)
= 1/(1+ dxVsolution(1-mass%) /(dxVsolution mass%) x Msolute /Msolvent)
solute = 1/(1+ (1-mass%) / mass% x Msolute / Msolvent)

14-3 Intermolecular Forces and the Solution Process
Enthalpy of Solution
FIGURE 14-2
Enthalpy diagram for solution formation

Intermolecular Forces in Mixtures
Magnitude of ΔHa, ΔHb, and ΔHc

depend on intermolecular forces.
Ideal solution
Forces are similar between all
combinations of components.
ΔHsoln = 0
FIGURE 14-3
Intermolecular Forces in Mixtures

FIGURE 14-4
Two components of a nearly ideal solution

FIGURE 14-5
Intermolecular force between unlike molecules leading to a nonideal solution

If adhesive forces greater If adhesive forces are less
than cohesive forces. than cohesive forces.
ΔHsoln < 0 ΔHsoln > 0
At the limit these solutions are heterogeneous.

What is the nature of the intermolecular forces in a
mixture of carbons disulfide and acetone?

Formation of Ionic Solutions
FIGURE 14-6
An ionic crystal dissolving in water

Enthalpies involved in the solution process:
= 3.9
rH1 = Hfº (Na(g) + IENa) + Hfº (Cl(g) + EACl) Hfº (NaCl(s)) =

kJ/mol = 787.0 kJ/mol
rH2 = Hfº (Na+(aq) Hfº (Na(g) + IENa)= kJ/mol =

843.2 kJ/mol
rH3 =HfºCl(aq)Hfº (Cl(g)+EACl)=  kJ/mol= kJ/mol

Easier way:
H = Hfº(Cl(aq)) Hfº(Na+(aq) Hfº(NaCl(s))=
 kJ/mol =  kJ/mol
Why is NaCl(s) soluble at room temperature?
S298 = Sº(Cl(aq)) + Sº(Na+(aq) Sº(NaCl(s)) =
(59.0 + 56.5 J/K mol x 298.15 K = 12.93 kJ/mol
G = H S = 3.9 kJ/mol – 12.93 kJ/mol =  9.0 kJ/mol

Standard Thermodynamic
Properties of Aqueous Ions
By convention:
∆fHº [H+(aq)] = 0 Sº [H+(aq)] = 0
∆fGº [H+(aq)] = 0 cp[H+(aq)] = 0

Estimate cp for an aqueous solution of ions using data from
Appendix D and Table 14.2 for 1 kg of water containing 1
mol of NaCl (1 m).

FIGURE 14-7
Trends in specific heat for aqueous salt solutions

FIGURE 14-8
Intermolecular interactions in pure water and for a sodium ion in water

14-4 Solution Formation and Equilibrium
FIGURE 14-9
Formation of a saturated solution

Supersaturated Unsaturated
FIGURE 14-11
Recrystallization of KNO3
FIGURE 14-10
Aqueous solubility of several salts as a function of temperature

14-5 Solubility of Gases
Effect of Temperature
Most gases are less soluble in

water as temperature increases.
In organic solvents the reverse
is often true.
FIGURE 14-12
Effect of temperature on the solubilities of gases

Effect of Pressure
William Henry found that the solubility of a gas increases with increasing pressure.
C = k×Pgas (14.2)
The solubility of N2 in water at 0 ºC and 1.00 atm is 23.54 mL

N2 per L of water.
What pressure is required to dissolve 100.0 mL N2 in 1.00 L of

water?

Effect of Pressure
William Henry found that the solubility of a gas increases with increasing pressure.
C = k×Pgas (14.2)
C
k= = 23.54 mL N2/L = 23.54 ml N2/L atm
Pgas 1.00 atm
C 100 mL N2/L
PN2 = = = 4.25 atm
k 23.54 ml N2/L atm

FIGURE 14-13
Effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas

The unopened bottle of soda water is under a high pressure of CO2(g). When a similar
bottle is opened, the pressure quickly drops and some of the CO2(g) is released from solution
(bubbles).

14-6 Vapor Pressures of Solutions
Roault, 1880s.
Dissolved solute lowers vapor pressure of solvent.
(14.3)

Vapor Pressure
vaporization
liquid vapor
condensation
FIGURE 12-16
Establishing liquid-vapor equilibrium

Vapor Pressure of a Component above a
Solution
Pvap
X1 = 1 X1 = 0
Vapor Pressure above a Solution of Two
Volatile Components (Toluene and Benzene)
Pvap1 Pvap2
95.1 mmHg
Ptot
28.4 mmHg
0.5
X1 = 1 X2 = 1
X2 = 0 X1 = 0
Mole Fraction of Vapor above a
Solution of Two Volatile Components
What is the mole fraction of the vapor above a

solution that contains equal masses of benzene
and toluene at 25°C?
P°vap of benzene = 95.1 mmHg

P°vap of toluene = 28.4 mmHg

vap bPb / Ptot Pb = solution b x P°vap b Ptot = Pvap b + Pvap t
P°vap b = 95.1 mmHg, P°vap t = 28.4 mmHg
solution bnb / ntot = nb / nb + nt solution tsolution b
n=m/M mb = m t
benzene C6H6: M = 6 x (12.011 + 1.0079) g/mol = 78.113 g/mol

toluene C7H8 : M = (7 x 12.011 + 8 x 1.0079) g/mol = 92.140 g/mol
Slide 52 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Solution:
bnb / nb + nt mb / Mb / (mb / Mb + mt / Mt ) mb = mt
1 / Mb / (1 / Mb + 1 / Mt )
1 / (Mb / Mb + Mb / Mt ) = 1/ (1+ Mb / Mt)
= 1 / (1+ 78.113 g/mol / 92.140 g/mol)
= 1/ (1+ 0.84776) = 0.54119

t 0.54119 = 0.45880 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
vap bPb / Ptot Pb = solution b x P°vap b Ptot = Pvap b + Pvap t
P°vap b = 95.1 mmHg, P°vap t = 28.4 mmHg
solution bnb / ntot = nb / nb + nt solution tsolution b
n=m/M mb = m t
benzene C6H6: M = 6 x (12.011 + 1.0079) g/mol = 78.113 g/mol

toluene C7H8 : M = (7 x 12.011 + 8 x 1.0079) g/mol = 92.140 g/mol
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Vapor:
Pvap b = b P°vap b = 0.54119 x 95.1 mmHg = 51.467 mmHg
Pvap t = t P°vap t = 0.45880 x 28.4 mmHg = 13.029 mmHg
P tot = 51.467 mmHg + 13.029 mmHg = 64.496 mmHg
b vap = 51.467 mmHg / 64.496 mmHg = 0.79797
t vap = 1  b vap = 10.79797 = 0.20202
The mole fraction of the vapor is different from the mole

Vapor:
b vap = 51.467 mmHg / 64.496 mmHg = 0.79797
t vap = 1  b vap = 10.79797 = 0.20202
The vapor is enriched in the more volatile compound!

Collect the vapor and condense it into
a liquid. What is the vapor pressure of
the new liquid?
Vapor:
b vap = 75.886 mmHg / 81.623 mmHg = 0.92970
t vap = 1  b vap = 10.92970 = 0.07029

Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium: Ideal Solutions
FIGURE 14-16
Liquid-vapor equilibrium for benzene-toluene mixtures at 25ºC

Fractional Distillation
FIGURE 14-17
Liquid-vapor equilibrium for benzene-toluene mixtures at 1 atm

An Equation for Expressing Vapor Pressure Data
1 ΔHvap
ln P = –A ( )+B A =
T R
FIGURE 12-20
Vapor pressure data plotted as lnP versus 1/T

Fractional Distillation
FIGURE 14-17
Liquid-vapor equilibrium for benzene-toluene mixtures at 1 atm

Mixtures do not have defined boiling points.
The boiling point changes continuously with

composition.
Mixtures can be separated one by one by fractional

distillation if their boiling points are sufficiently
different.
The most volatile component is removed first.

FIGURE 14-18 Fractional distillation is used in many
Fractional distillation industrial processes.

Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium: Nonideal Solutions
FIGURE 14-19
A minimum boiling-point azeotrope

When a non-ideal mixture is distilled, the more volatile
component can be removed until the azeotrope is reached.
The azeotrope boils with a fixed boiling point like a pure

component and can not be separated by distillation.
Vapor and liquid of azeotropes have the same composition.
There are low boiling and high boiling azeotropes.
Low boiling azeotropes have lower boiling points than

either of the components, high boiling azeotropes have
higher boiling points than either of the pure components.

Two aqueous soultions with different concentrations of a solute are placed
under a cover and equlibrium is established. What will be observed?
FIGURE 14-20

Deliquescence (depends on relative humidity)
Water from humid air

condenses on a solid.
The solid dissolves.
The resulting solution is

saturated and has a lower vapor
pressure than pure water.
If the humidity of air exceeds

the vapor pressure of the
solution, water condenses and
dissolves eventually the entire
solid.
FIGURE 14-20
Observing the direction of flow of water vapor

Colligative Properties
Colligare: to count (from Latin)
Colligative properties depend only on the number of

particles but not on their nature.

14-7 Osmotic Pressure
FIGURE 14-21
Osmosis
Osmotic Pressure, π
For dilute solutions of electrolytes:
πV = nRT
n
π= RT = C×RT (14.4)
V

Osmotic Pressure of a 1.0 M sucrose
solution at room temperature
 = C R T = 1.0 mol/L x 0.08205 L atm / K mol x 298.1 K
= 24.45 atm
What water column can this create?

P = g x hHg x dHg = g x hH2O x dH2O
hHg x dHg = hH2O x dH2O
hH2O = hHg x dHg / dH2O

= 24.45 atm x 760 mmHg x 13.6 g/mL / 1.00 g/mL
= 250 m
Reverse Osmosis
• If pressure is applied to the column, the osmotic flow can
be stopped.
• If the pressure exceeds the osmotic pressure, the flow can

be reversed.
• Sea water can desalinized by reverse osmosis.
• Since osmotic pressures are very high, reverse osmosis

requires a lot of energy and very good membranes.

Practical Applications
A small reverse-osmosis unit

used to desalinize seawater.
FIGURE 14-22
Desalination of saltwater by reverse osmosis

Hypertonic Isotonic Saline Hypotonic
> 0.92% m/V 0.92% m/V < 0.92% m/V
water flows out of water flows into
the cells causing the cells causing
crenation rupture
48.91 atm

Osmotic Pressure of an isotonic NaCl
solution at body temperature (335.1 K)
m/V = 0.92 g / 100 mL = 9.2 g /L
NaCl (s) → Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) 2 mol of particles per mol of NaCl
C = 2 x 9.2 g / 58.44 g/mol L = 0.3148 mol/L
 = C R T = 0.3148 4 mol/L x 0.08205 L atm / K mol x 335.1 K
= 8.6 atm
Drinking pure water can kill.

14-8 Freezing-Point Depression and
Boiling Point Elevation of
Nonelectrolyte Solutions
A Colligative property.
Depends on the number of particles present.
Vapor pressure is lowered when a solute is present.

This results in boiling point elevation.
Freezing point is also effected and is lowered.

ΔTf = Kf×m
ΔTb = Kb×m
FIGURE 14-23
Vapor-pressure lowering by a nonvolatile solute

ΔTf = –Kf×m (14.5)
ΔTb = Kb×m (14.6)

What is the freezing point of an aqueous solution that has
a vapor pressure of 22.6 mmHg at 25.0 ºC? The vapor
pressure of water is 23.8 mmHg at 25.0 ºC.
Tf – Ti = – Kf x m
Tf = – Kf x ns/mw – Ti Kf = 1.86 ºC kg/mol Ti = 0.00 ºC
Pvap w = w P°vap w
w = Pvap w / P°vap w = 22.6 mmHg/23.8mmHg = 0.94957

s1 – w = 0.050420
wnw / nw + ns
nw = w x (nw + ns) ns = 1 – w x (nw + ns)

mw = w x (nw + ns) x Mw
T = – K x (1 –  ) x (n + n ) / ( x (n + n ) x M )
Practical Applications
Water sprayed on citrus fruit releases its A typical aircraft deicer is propylene glycol,
heat of fusion as it freezes into a layer of ice CH3CH(OH)CH2OH, diluted with water and applied
that acts as a thermal insulator. For a time, as a hot, high-pressure spray.
the temperature remains at 0ºC. The juice of
the fruit, having a freezing point below 0ºC, is
protected from freezing.

14-9 Solutions of Electrolytes
Ph.D. 1883
Nobel Prize 1903.
He postulated that ions form when electrolytes dissolve in
solution and explained anomalous colligative properties.
His results were described thus:

“Chemists would not recognize them as chemistry; nor
physicists as physics. They have in fact build a bridge
between the two.”
Svante Arrhenius
(1859-1927) The field of
physical chemistry had its
origins in Arrhenius’s work

van’t Hoff defined a factor for anomalous results:
Compare 0.0100 m aqueous urea to 0.0100 m NaCl (aq)

ΔTf = –Kf×m = –1.86ºC m−1×0.0100 m = –0.0186ºC
BUT, freezing point depression for NaCl is –0.0361ºC.
measured ΔTf 0.0361ºC

i= = = 1.98
expected ΔTf 0.0186ºC
Arrhenius’s theory of electrolytic dissociation allows us

to explain different values of the van’t Hoff factor.

π = i ×M×RT
ΔTf = –i×Kf×m
ΔTb = i×Kb×m

Interionic Interactions
Arrhenius theory does not correctly predict the conductivity
of concentrated electrolytes.

Debye and Hückel
1923
Ions in solution do not behave independently of one another.
Each ion is surrounded by others of opposite charge.
Ion mobility is reduced by the drag of the ionic atmosphere.
The magnitudes of colligative properties are reduced.
Stoichiometric concentration versus activity.
Activity takes into account interionic interactions.

FIGURE 14-24
Interionic attractions in aqueous solution

14-10Colloidal Mixtures
FIGURE 14-25
The Tyndall effect

Particles of 1-1000 nm size.
Nanoparticles of various shapes:
rods, discs, spheres.
Particles can remain suspended

indefinitely.
Milk is colloidal.
Increasing ionic strength can

cause coagulation, or
precipitation.
FIGURE 14-26
Surface of SiO2 particle in colloidal silica

FIGURE 14-27
Coagulation of colloidal iron oxide

FIGURE 14-28 Hemodyalysis
The principles of dialysis

End of Chapter

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY

PRINCIPLES AND MODERN APPLICATIONS

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

Solutions and their Physical 14

Slide 14 - 1 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

14-3 Intermolecular Forces and the

14-6 Vapor Pressures of Solutions

14-7 Osmotic Pressure

Slide 14 - 2 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 3 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 4 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 5 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 6 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 7 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 8 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Particles are temporarily

Mixtures have regions of one

Liquid mixtures are not clear

Slide 9 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures and are uniform throughout.

Slide 14 - 10 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Mass Percent (m/m)

Isotonic saline is prepared by dissolving

Slide 14 - 12 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

ppm: parts per million

note that 1.0 L × 1.0 g/mL = 1000 g

Slide 14 - 13 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Amount of component i (in moles)

Slide 14 - 14 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Amount of solute (in moles)

Slide 14 - 15 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Amount of solute (in moles)

Slide 14 - 16 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

VH S = 450 m3 x 10/106 = 4.5 103 m3 = 4.5 L

= (32.06 g/mol + 2 x 1.007 g/mol) x 1.0 atm x 4.5

Calculate molarity, molality and mole fraction of

Slide 18 of 46 General Chemistry: Chapter 13 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

C = nsolute / Vsolution = 12.39 mol/L = 12.39 M

1)Start with V = 1.000 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3

2)nsolute = msolute / Msolute = 451.668 g / 36.4606 g/mol = 12.3878 mol

3) Msolute = 35.4527 g/mol + 1.0079 g/mol =36.4606 g/mol

msolvent = msolution  msolute = 1,188.6 g68 g = 736.932 g

m = 12.3878 mol / 0.736932 kg = 16.81 m

nsolvent = 736.932 g / 18.0152 g/mol = 40.9061 mol

= 12.3878 mol / (12.3878 mol + 40.9061 mol) = 0.2324

C = nsolute / Vsolution = msolute / (Msolute x Vsolution)

= msolution x mass% / (Msolute x Vsolution)

= d x Vsolution x mass% / (Msolute x Vsolution)

= 1.1886 g/cm3 x 1000 cm3/L x 0.3800 / 36.4606 g/mol =

= msolute / (Msolute (msolution – msolute))

= msolution x mass% / (Msolute (msolution – msolution x mass% ))

m = mass% / (Msolute (1–mass% ))

= 0.3800 / (36.4606 g/mol x 0.6200) = 0.0168100 mol/g

= 16.81 mol/kg = 16.81 m

= nsolute/(nsolute + nsolvent) = 1/(1+ nsolvent / nsolute) =

= 1/(1+ msolvent / Msolvent x Msolute / msolute)

= 1/(1+ msolvent / msolute x Msolute / Msolvent)

= 1/(1+ dxVsolution(1-mass%) /(dxVsolution mass%) x Msolute /Msolvent)

solute = 1/(1+ (1-mass%) / mass% x Msolute / Msolvent)

Slide 14 - 24 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Magnitude of ΔHa, ΔHb, and ΔHc

Slide 14 - 25 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 14 - 26 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 14 - 27 General Chemistry: Chapter 14 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.