MODULE NO.

6
 PERMUTATION AND INVERSION
Permutation is the ordered arrangement of objects, hence,
considering the set of integers 1, 2, and 3 taken all together,
the permutations are 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, and 321 or
there are 3! = 6 permutations.
Inversion is the changed in the order of the arrangement of
the set of integers. If in a given permutation the larger integer
precedes a smaller one, them there is an inversion. In the
permutation 463521, there are 3 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 1 = 12
inversions.
If the number of inversion is even/odd, then there is and
even/odd permutations.
 DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
Let be a square matrix of order as shown:

Hence, the determinant of square matrix denoted by │or det

is the algebraic sum of all the different signed products which
can be formed from the elements of that is

where the summation extends over permutations of the

integers 1, 2, 3, . . .
 The signed product is positive for even number of
inversions and negative for odd number of inversions.
DETERMINANT OF ORDERS TWO AND THREE
a. Order two
 
 det = +
det = –
b. Order three
 + +
+ + +
or
––
+ + –

EXAMPLES
1. Find the determinant of .
 2. If then find the value of .
Solution:
 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
P1. If every element of a row (column) of a square matrix is zero, then
P2. If is a square matrix then .
P3. If every element of a row (column) of a determinant is multiplied by
a scalar , then the determinant is multiplied by if every of a row
(column) of a determinant has as a factor, then may be factored from
P4. If is obtained from by interchanging any two adjacent rows
(columns), then
P5. If is obtained from by interchanging any two of its rows (columns),
then
P6. If two rows (columns) of are identical or proportional, then
P7. If is obtained from by carrying its row (column) over
rows (columns), then
P8. If every element of its row (column) of is the sum of
terms, then can be expressed as the sum of determinants.
P9. If is obtained from by adding to the elements of its row
(column) a scalar multiple of the corresponding elements of
another row (column), then
P10. The sum of the products formed by multiplying the
elements of a row (column) of an - square matrix by the
corresponding cofactors of another row (column) of is zero.
P11. If and are square matrices of the same order, then
 PIVOTAL ELEMENT METHOD
To evaluate the determinant using the Pivotal Element Method,
consider the following steps:
1. If the given determinant of order has an element one, then use
this as the pivotal element, otherwise choose a convenient
element, say and reduce this to one by dividing either the row or
column by and balance by multiplying the determinant also by .
2. Cross out the row and column through
3. From the resulting determinant of order subtract the product of
the elements from the element in which the row and column
containing are met by the row and column containing that
element.
4. The value of the determinant is times the value of the new
determinant
EXAMPLES
1. Find the determinant of .
Solution:
Consider the element;
Factor out the element in the row;
2. If then find the value of .
Solution:
Consider the element;
Consider the element;

or

DIAGONAL METHOD
To evaluate the determinant using the Diagonal Method; consider the
following steps:
1. Reduce the determinant (square matrix) of order to an upper
triangular matrix.
2. The value of the determinant is the product of all the
elements in the main diagonal. Hence

If , then

EXAMPLES
1. Find the determinant of .
Solution:
 𝑟1 ⟷ 𝑟3

𝑐2⟷ 𝑐3

𝑟 3 −𝑟 2
2. If then find the value of .
Solution:
 1
𝑟3 − 𝑟2
(
2 𝑥+
1
2 )
 MINOR AND COFACTOR OF AN ELEMENT
a. Minor of an Element
If is a square matrix of order where then the minor of an
element of is the determinant where is the sub-matrix
obtained from by deleting the row and column containing the
element.

b. Cofactor of an Element
If is a square matrix of order where then the cofactor of an
element of is minor of the element that is .
 COFACTOR EXPANSION METHOD
The value of the determinant is the algebraic sum obtained
by multiplying each element of the row (column) by the
cofactor or signed minor.
Hence, for the determinant of order 3 as shown;

Consider row;
Consider the row;

EXAMPLES
1. Find the determinant of .
Solution:
Consider row;

Consider the row;

2. If then find the value of .

Solution:
Consider the column;

Consider the column;

 LAPLACE DEVELOPMENT METHOD
Let be the determinant of order and be the minor of
whose elements are in any rows and columns of
To evaluate the determinant using the Laplace
Development Method, consider the following steps:
1. Choose any rows (columns) from the given determinant.
2. The value of the determinant is the algebraic sum of all the
minors of contained in the chosen rows (columns) multiplied
by their corresponding algebraic complements.
The complementary minor of is the determinant of order
that is obtained after deleting the rows and columns of from .
 The algebraic complement of a minor is the complementary
minor of multiplied by where denote the rows and denote the
columns.

EXAMPLES
1. Find the determinant of .
Solution:
Consider the and rows;
2. If then find the value of .
Solution:
Consider the and rows;
or

EXERCISE NO. 2
1. Evaluate:
a.
b.
 c.

d.
2. Find the value of :
a. b.
 
c. = d.
3. Verify:
a. b.