DEFINITION

BONES: THE RIGID STRUCTURE CONNECTED BY

JOINT TO WHICH MUSCLES ARE ATTACHED
Several terms are used to refer to features and components of
bones throughout the body:

ARTICULAR
PROCESS
A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.
The region where adjacent bones contact each other—
articulation
a joint.
A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for
canal
notable nerves or blood vessels.

condyle A large, rounded articular process.

crest A prominent ridge.

eminence A relatively small projection or bump.

 A projection near to a condyle but not part of the
epicondyle
joint.

facet A small, flattened articular surface.

foramen An opening through a bone.

fossa A broad, shallow depressed area.

fovea A small pit on the head of a bone.

labyrinth A cavity within a bone.

A long, thin projection, often with a rough

line
surface. Also known as a ridge.
 One of two specific protuberances of bones in
malleolus
the ankle.

meatus A short canal.

A relatively large projection or prominent bump.

process
(gen.)

ramus An arm-like branch off the body of a bone.

sinus A cavity within a cranial bone.

spine A relatively long, thin projection or bump.

suture Articulation between cranial bones.

 trochanter One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur.

A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally

tubercle
smaller than a tuberosity.

tuberosity A projection or bump with a roughened surface.

 Several terms are used to refer to specific features
of long bones:

The long, relatively straight main body of a long

diaphysis bone; region of primary ossification. Also known
as the shaft.
The end regions of a long bone; regions of
epiphysis
secondary ossification.
 Also known as the growth plate or physis. In a
long bone it is a thin disc of hyaline cartilage
epiphyseal that is positioned transversely between the
plate epiphysis and metaphysis. In the long bones of
humans, the epiphyseal plate disappears by
twenty years of age.

head The proximal articular end of the bone.

The region of a long bone lying between the

metaphysis
epiphysis and diaphysis.

The region of bone between the head and the

neck
shaft.
 BONES OF HUMAN BODY

The human skeleton is divided

into two distinct parts:
The axial skeleton consists of bones that form
the axis of the body
and support and protect the organs of the head,
neck, and trunk.
The Skull
The Sternum
The Ribs
The Vertebral Column
The appendicular skeleton is composed of bones
that anchor the appendages
to the axial skeleton
 The Upper Extremities
The Lower Extremities
The Shoulder Girdle
The Pelvic Girdle—
(the sacrum and coccyx are
considered part of the vertebral column)
A typical *adult human skeleton commonly consists of 206, 208
or more bones
depending on the method used in counting.
The count of 208 considers
the sternum to be made up of three bones instead of one
; manubrium,
body of sternum also known as (gladiolus)
and xiphoid process.
Anatomical variation may also result in the formation of
more or less bones.
More common variations include cervical ribs or
an additional lumbar vertebra.
Babies are born with around 300 to 350 bones,
many of which fuse together during growth
 In the skull (22):
Cranial bones:
frontal bone
parietal bone (2)
temporal bone (2)
occipital bone
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
Facial bones:
mandible
maxilla (2)
palatine bone (2)
zygomatic bone (2)
nasal bone (2)
lacrimal bone (2)
vomer bone
inferior nasal conchae (2)
In the middle ears (6):
malleus (2)
incus (2)
stapes (2)
In the throat (1):
hyoid bone
 Cranial bones:
frontal bone
parietal bone (2)
temporal bone (2)
occipital bone
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
Facial bones:
mandible
maxilla (2)
palatine bone (2)
zygomatic bone (2)
nasal bone (2)
lacrimal bone (2)
vomer bone
inferior nasal conchae (2)
 In the middle ears (6):
malleus (2)
incus (2)
stapes (2)
In the throat (1):
hyoid bone
In the shoulder girdle (4):
scapula or shoulder blade (2)
clavicle or collarbone (2
 In the shoulder girdle (4):
scapula or shoulder blade (2)
clavicle or collarbone (2)
In the thorax (25 or 27):
sternum
Can be considered as three bones; manubrium,
body of sternum (gladiolus) and xiphoid process
ribs (2 x 12)
In the vertebral column (24):
cervical vertebrae (7)
thoracic vertebrae (12)
lumbar vertebrae (5)
 In the arms (2):
humerus (2)
In the forearms (4):
radius (2)
ulna (2)
In the hands (54):
Carpal (wrist) bones:
scaphoid bone (2)
lunate bone (2)
triquetral bone (2)
pisiform bone (2)
trapezium (2)
trapezoid bone (2)
capitate bone (2)
hamate bone (2)
Metacarpus (palm) bones:
metacarpal bones (5 × 2)
Digits of the hand (finger bones or phalanges):
proximal phalanges (5 × 2)
intermediate phalanges (4 × 2)
distal phalanges (5 × 2)
 In the pelvis (4):
coccyx
sacrum
hip bone (innominate bone or coxal bone) (2)
In the thighs (2):
femur (2)
In the legs (6):
patella (2)
tibia (2)
fibula (2)
 In the feet (52):
Tarsal (ankle) bones:
calcaneus (heel bone) (2)
talus (2)
navicular bone (2)
medial cuneiform bone (2)
intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
lateral cuneiform bone (2)
cuboid bone (2)
Metatarsus bones:
metatarsal bone (5 × 2)
Digits of the foot (toe bones or phalanges):
proximal phalanges (5 × 2)
intermediate phalanges (4 × 2)
distal phalanges (5 × 2)
 Types of bones, What makes up a bone,
How bones work, Joints

Do you ever wonder how many bones are in your body,

or how much you breath in a certain amount of time? 
Diagram of the Skeleton
 Skeleton

Our skeleton of bones is unbelievably important to us.

If we did not have our Skeletal System our bodies would
fall to the ground in a big
blob of "jelly".
Our skeleton helps us move, I
t also protects and
supports us.
We have approximately two hundred and six bones in or
body.
But you don't at all times. When you are born, you had at
least three hundred bones.
As you grow older some bones join
together as one although some new
bones are created.
Each bone is stiff and unyielding
which forms our skeleton.
Bones are linked together by
unmovable joints and are worked by
muscles.
The skeleton protects our most
delicate parts of the body with the
most protection:
The Skull shields the Brain, the rib
cage protects the heart and lungs.
The bony framework of a full size
adult is about twenty pounds.
 Each of the two hundred and six bones of the body has its own
name.
The largest bones in the skeleton are the femur and the thighbone
it
makes up one quarter of a persons height.
The shortest bone in the human body is in the ear,
the bone is called the stirrup.
It is one-fourth of a centimeter.
As the words in a popular bones song Dem Bones explains t
hat each bone is connected to another bone.
The skull is the top of our skeleton which goes down to form your
face.
The skull sits on top of your spinal column.
You can feel the tiny bones that make up your spinal column.
The spinal column protects the spinal chord,
the main part of nerves that allows your brain send signals to the
rest of your body.
 Types of bones
The skull is made up of 29 bones.
It starts out as individual bones, and as you grow it
joins together as one.
The bowl shaped top section is called the cranium.
It protects the brain.
The cranium is made up of 8 smooth bones fit
together tightly.
The bones in the cranium are thin and curved.
When a baby is born there are gaps called
fontanels in an infant's cranial bones.
Instead of bone there is a white membrane
protecting the brain.
By the time the baby is 15 months through 2
years of age there, fibrous,
zigzagging joints called sutures will have sealed the
gaps in their skull.
In the front of the skull there is 14 bones that form
the shape of your face
. If you feel around your eyes you will feel little
holes,
that allows room for your eye sockets where the
eyes are located.
Most of the nose that we can see is made up of
flexible cartilage, instead of bone.
In our skull there is a hole where the nose goes.
This hole leads to the nasal cavity.
When you open or close your mouth one bone
moves, the mandible.
The mandible is the strongest and largest bone of
the face.
When you open or close your mouth the lower
jawbone, the mandible,
is the only bone that moves.
On your cheekbones or your side of the skull
muscles are attached.
The upper jaw forms 2 large bones called
maxillary bones that are joined together.
Together these bones make up most of the face,
along with the top of the mouth called the hard
plate.
Your tongue touches the hard plate when you
talk, helping form your sounds.
There are roots in your jawbone that hold your
teeth in place.
Blood vessels travel through holes in the bottom
of the skull,
carrying oxygen and glucose from the heart to
the brain cells and
then carrying away their waste products.
There are also openings for nerves, which link the
brain with the rest of the body.
 Ankle-

The bones that poke out of our ankles are actually

the ending of the fibula and tibia.
The back of the foot where or ankle really is,
it is formed by the calcaneus and 6 other bones
called tarsals.
There are 7 ankle bones compared to the 8 wrist
bones
Feet-
In the center of the foot there are 5 bones called
the metatarsals.
These bones are connected to the toe bones
which are also called phalanges.
We use are little, pinky, toe to keep our balance
and
we use our big toe to push off on when we walk
or run. But we do not use our toes that much.
Did you know that in a single foot there is up to
33 joints
 Knee-

The kneebone, the patella, is located

at the front of your joint where the 3
leg bones meet.
The patella is a shield for the joint and
the ligaments around it.
 
 Legs-

The legs consist of 3 bones, the femur, the fibula, and

the tibia.
The leg bones are very similar to the arm bones just much
bigger.
The femur is the biggest of the leg bones it is located in
the upper part of the leg.
It extends from the knee to the pelvis.
The tibia is located in the front of your lower leg, the
shin.
Alongside of it is the fibula. Again all three bones are
connected by a joint at the knee.
 Ribs would not work for the ribs because the ribs need
to be able to move so it allows you to breath.
Altogether there are 24 ribs that -

The ribs are like the skull in a way,

they both protect extremely important parts of the body.
Although the design of your organs.
 Arms-

If you feel your upper arm you will feel a rather thick
bone.
It is called the humerous.
At the end of the bone it rounds off into a ball like
object, and fits in your shoulder socket,
the shoulder blade. In the forearm there are 2 separate
bones, the radius and the ulna.
If you were to hold up your arm with your wrist facing up
you would feel the radius on the thumb side.
If you were to rotate your arm 180 degrees so your wrist
is facing down you would feel the ulna.
The three bones are connected by a joint at the elbow.
 Hands-

The design of your hand is made by 5 long bones called

metacarpals.
The bones of the fingers are called phalanges.
These are connected to the metacarpals.
In each finger there are three bones and in the thumb
there are only 2. there are 27 in all.
 
 Wrist-

The wrists are made up of 8 little bones, carparal bones,

that fit together like interlocking pebbles.
The carparal bones are joined together by ligaments.
You do not always have 8 carparal bones when you are born
you have 0
but as you get older you have as many as 8.
 Bone Growth

When the foetus in the womb initially starts to develop it has no

bone, only cartilage.
At 6-7 weeks, the ossification process starts.
When the baby is born, it has over 300 bones, but as the baby grows
up, many bones fuse together and
a fully grown adult has just 206 bones. When ossification occurs,
cartilage is replaced with bone by laying down calcium.
This process is known as calcification.
During the growth phase, the bone grows from the growth plates
(epiphyseal plates)
which are situated at the end of the bone,
just before the epiphysis (see the x-ray of a child's epiphyseal
plates to the right).
At the end of growth, between the ages of about 16 - 21,
these epiphyseal plates turn to bone.
Two types of cell involved in bone growth are osteoblasts
and osteoclasts.
Osteoblasts lay down new bone, whilst osteoclasts clear
away the old bone. Growth occurs when the cells in the
cartilage divide and push the older cartilage cells down
towards the bone. The diaphysis ossifies first, followed by
the epiphyses
 What affects bone growth?
Sufficient calcium
Sufficient phosphorus
Vitamins, especially vitamin D which is involved
in the absorption of calcium
The correct hormone balance, specifically:
Growth hormone from the pituitary gland
Calcitonin from the thyroid gland.
Calcitonin metabolises calcium and phosphorus.
Parathormone - from the parathyroid gland –
almost works in
opposition to calcitonin to balance it out.
The sex hormones, testosterone and oestrogen.
 The aging process. Women start to lose calcium from
their bones at around the age of 40, and
in men at around the age of 60, perhaps eventually
leading to brittle bone disease - osteoporosis.
Other causes of osteoporosis include prolonged treatment
with cortisone steroids,
anorexia nervosa and an inadequate diet, especially
during pregnancy and breast feeding.
However, it is possible to increase bone density by
performing weight bearing exercise,
taking calcium supplements (where the diet does not
contain sufficient calcium) and,
in women, oestrogen replacement therapy.
Protein formation in bone decreases with age, which can
make bones more liable to fracture.
 Bone Composition
Bones are composed of tissue that may take one of
two forms.
Compact, or dense bone, and spongy, or
cancellous, bone.
Most bones contain both types.
Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the
protective exterior portion of all bones.
Spongy bone is inside the compact bone and is
very porous (full of tiny holes).
Spongy bone occurs in most bones.
The bone tissue is composed of several types of
bone cells embedded in a web of inorganic salts
(mostly calcium and phosphorus) to give the bone
strength,
and collagenous fibers and ground substance to
give the bone flexibility
TYPES OF BONES
Flat Bones
Flat bones are as they sound, strong, flat
plates of bone with the main function of
providing protection to the bodies vital organs
and being a base for muscular attachment. The
classic example of a flat bone is the Scapula
(shoulder blade). The Sternum (breast bone),
Cranium (skull), Pelvis and Ribs are also
classified as flat bones. Anterior and posterior
surfaces are formed of compact bone to
provide strength for protection with the centre
consisiting of cancellous (spongy) bone and
varying amounts of bone marrow. In adults,
the highest number of red blood cells are
formed in flat bones.
Sesamoid Bones
Sesamoid bones are usually short or
irregular bones, imbedded in a tendon. The
most obvious example of this is the Patella
(knee cap) which sits within the Patella or
Quadriceps tendon. Other sesamoid bones
are the Pisiform (smallest of the Carpals)
and the two small bones at the base of the
1st Metatarsal. Sesamoid bones are usually
present in a tendon where it passes over a
joint which serves to protect the tendon.
Irregular Bones
These are bones which do not fall
into any other category, due to their
non-uniform shape. Good examples
of these are the Vertebrae, Sacrum
and Mandible (lower jaw). They
primarily consist of cancellous bone,
with a thin outer layer of compact
bone
Short Bones
Short bones are defined as being
approximately as wide as they are long and
have a primary function of providing support
and stability with little movement. Examples of
short bones are the Carpals and Tarsals in the
wrsit and foot. They consist of only a thin layer
of compact, hard bone with cancellous bone on
the inside along with relatively large amounts
of bone marrow
There are 5 types of bone found within the
human body. These are long, short, flat,
irregular and sesmoid.
Long Bones
Long bones are some of the longest bones in
the body, such as the Femur, Humerus and
Tibia but are also some of the smallest
including the Metacarpals, Metatarsals and
Phalanges. The classification of a long bone
includes having a body which is longer than it is
wide, with growth plates (epiphysis) at either
end, having a hard outer surface of compact
bone and a spongy inner known an cancellous
bone containing bone marrow. Both ends of the
bone are covered in hyaline cartilage to help
protect the bone and aid shock absorbtion.
Long bones:
"Long bones" have greater length
than width and consist of a shaft
and a variable number of endings
(extremities).
They are usually somewhat curved
for strength.
Examples include femur, tibia,
fibula, humerus, ulna and radius.
Short bones:
"Short bones" are roughly cube-shaped and
have approximately equal length and width.
Examples include ankle and wrist bones.
FLATbones:
"Flat bones" have a thin protection and
extensive surfaces for muscle at
shape/structure and provide considerable
mechanical tachments. Examples include
cranial bones (protectin the brain), the
sternum and ribs (protecting the organs
in the thorax), and the scapulae
(shoulder blades).
Irregular bones:
"Irregular bones" have complicated
shapes and so cannot be classified into
any of the above (shape-based)
categories. Their shapes are due to the
functions they fulfill within the body
e.g. providing major mechanical
support for the body yet also protecting
the spinal cord (in the case of the
vertebrae).
Examples include the vertebrae and
some facial bones.
Sesamoid bones:
"Sesamoid bones" develop in some
tendons in locations where there is
considerable friction, tension, and
physical stress. They may therefore
form in the palms of the hands and the
soles of the feet, however their presence
and quantity varies considerably from
person to person.
Examples common to everyone include
the patellae (kneecaps).
Sutural bones:
"Sutural bones" are classified by their
location rather than by their shape.
They are very small bones located
within the sutural joints between the
cranial bones. The number of sutural
bones varies considerably from person
to person, therefore these are un-named
bones.
Functions of The
Skeleton
Support
The skeleton is the framework of the
body, it supports the softer tissues and
provides points of attachment for most
skeletal muscles.
Protection
The skeleton provides mechanical protection for many of the body's
internal organs, reducing risk of injury to them.
For example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae protect the spinal
cord, and the ribcage protects the heart and lungs.
Assisting in Movement
bones to Skeletal muscles are attached to
bones, therefore when the associated
muscles contract they cause move.
Storage of Minerals
Bone tissues store several minerals,
including calcium (Ca) and phosphorus
(P). When required, bone releases
minerals into the blood - facilitating the
balance of minerals in the body.
Production of Blood Cells
The red bone marrow inside some larger
bones (including, for example, the ....)
blood cells are produced.
(Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells and
Platelets are described on the page:
Structure & Functions of Blood.)

Storage of Chemical Energy

. With increasing age some bone marrow changes
from 'red bone marrow' to 'yellow bone marrow'.
Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose
cells, and a few blood cells. It is an important
chemical energy reserve
 The following two bone types are usually
classified separately:
Sesamoid, or round bones, such as the kneecap, are found
embedded within certain tendons.
Sutural, or Wormian bones, occur between the sutures
(joints) of the cranial bones of the skull