UNIT 2: Genetic Processes

Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction

How do the processes of mitosis and meiosis
explain heredity and genetic variation?

Chapter 5: Patterns of Inheritance

Chapter 6: Complex Patterns of Inheritance

UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

4.1 Cell Division and Genetic Material

Genetics is the field of biology that involves the study of how genetic information is passed from one generation of organisms or cells to
the next. Understanding genetics begins with understanding cellular processes. The cell theory, developed in the mid-1800s, states that:

It follows from the third postulate that traits must be passed from a parent cell to new daughter cells.

1) All living things are composed of one or more cells.

2) Cells are the smallest units of living organisms.
3) New cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division.
The human body has trillions of cells. Why is functionally optimal
to have many small cells instead of fewer larger cells?
 Why are Cells so Tiny?
• As cells grow larger, the volume grows faster than the
membranes’ surface area.
• When the cell becomes too large to absorb enough
nutrients it must divide.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

The Cell Cycle

A somatic cell is a plant or animal cell found in the body of an organism. All
somatic cells go through cell cycles. As one cell completes a cycle, it becomes two
cells. The duration of the cell cycle depends on the cell type and the organism. For
most healthy, actively dividing animal cells, the cycle lasts 12 to 24 hours.
 
In multicellular organisms, cell division (cell cycling) has three functions:

1) Development/growth of the organism

2) Repair/replacement of damaged tissues and organs
3) Sexual or Asexual Reproduction

Specific checkpoints in the cell cycle monitor growth to ensure the cycle
continues when it should and stops when it should. Regulation is the key to
preventing uncontrolled and rapid growth, such as cancerous growth.
 Asexual reproduction
Reproduction
involves only one “parent.” The
offspring are exact
genetic copies of the parent.
– Ex. Baceteria (E. Coli)

Sexual Reproduction
involves two “parents.”
Offspring inherits characteristics
from both parents.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Stages of the Cell Cycle

There are three main stages of the cell cycle:
• Interphase: growth, intense cell activity and DNA replication
(95% of cell’s time is spent in interphase)
• Mitosis: cell’s nucleus and genetic material divide
• Cytokinesis: division of the cell cytoplasm and creation of new
cells
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Interphase
During Interphase, the cell carries out its normal functions, as it
grows and makes copies of its genetic material.
 
Interphase is divided into three phases: Growth 1 (G1), Synthesis
(S), and Growth 2 (G2).

• G1 is the major period of growth.

• S phase is when DNA in the form
of uncondensed chromatin is
replicated.
• G2 involves further growth and
molecule synthesis as cell prepares for
division
S Phase: Genetic Information (DNA) in the form of
chromatin is replicated (yes, I know the picture says
chromosomes and not chromatin)
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Mitosis
Before it divides, the cell must undergo mitosis, which is the
separation of the cell’s replicated genetic material (from interphase).
Mitosis involves the following structures:
• chromosome: a structure in
the nucleus that contains DNA
• sister chromatid: one of two
chromosomes that are
genetically identical and held
together at
the centromere
• centromere: the region where
two sister chromatids are held
together in a chromosome
•spindle fibre: a microtubule structure that facilitates the movement
of chromosomes within a cell
• centrosome: a structure composed to 2 centrioles that helps to
form the spindle fibres
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Mitosis
Mitosis is Nuclear Division. It involves the cell’s now replicated
genetic material (DNA) separating from each other as the cell
prepares to split. It is composed of the following four stages.
i. Prophase
ii.Metaphase
iii.Anaphase
iv.Telophase
 i) Prophase
•Chromatin condenses (gets thicker) into 46 chromosomes
•Every chromosome contains two identical copies of DNA from
interphase
•These two identical parts of each chromosome are called sister
chromatids(92 of them) and they are joined by a centromere
•The nuclear membrane breaks down and the nucleolus disappears
•Spindle fibres (microtubules) are formed from centrosomes and move
toward opposite poles of the cell

16
 Before S Phase After S Phase

*Note: Every chromosomes has a single centromere but

could have 1 or two chromatids
At this point, every human somatic cell has:

46 chromosomes & 92 chromatid

ii) Metaphase

• All 46 chromosomes
align themselves
along metaphase
plate of the cell
(also known as
equator, equatorial
plate or centre
line)
• The spindle fibres
are now attached to
the centrosomes at 20
At this point, every human somatic cell has:

46 chromosomes & 92 chromatid

iii) Anaphase
• 46 chromosomes
with 2 sister
chromatids each
split at the
centromere and
separate (spindle
fibres contract)
towards opposite
poles.

• The separated
sister chromatids 23
At this point, every human somatic cell has:

92 chromosomes & 92 chromatid

iv) Telophase
• Begins when
chromosomes reach the
poles. (46 to each
pole)

• Chromosomes
Chromatin start to
uncoil and decondense
back into
________________

• Cleavage furrow forms

near the middle of the
cell

• Spindle fibres break26

At this point, every human somatic cell has:

92 chromosomes & 92 chromatid

 Stage # of Chromosomes # of Chromatids

INTERPHASE G1 46 46
INTERPHASE S 46 92
PROPHASE 46 92
METAPHASE 46 92
ANAPHASE 92 92
TELOPHASE 92 92
CYTOKENISIS 46 46
What stage of mitosis are these cells in?
Prophase Interphase

Anaphase Telophase Metaphase

UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Cytokinesis
The process of cytokinesis is different in different cell types.

In animal cells, the cleavage furrow continues to deepen as the

cytoplasm divides equally, and the cell pinches off into two identical
cells known as daughter cells. The original cell before mitosis and
cytokinesis was known as a parent cell. This is accomplished by
means of microfilaments constricting.

Cytokinesis begins with a furrow that

pinches the cell and eventually splits the
two cells apart. This transmission electron
micrograph shows two identical kidney cells
forming. Magnification: 1700x

At this point, every human somatic cell has:

46 chromosomes & 46 chromatid

UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

 
Cytokinesis
In plant cells, the rigid cell wall does not pinch inward. Instead, a new structure called a cell plate forms between the daughter nuclei. A cell wall forms on
each side of the cell plate.
 
Prokaryotic cells complete cell division with binary fission since they lack a nucleus. DNA is pulled apart, and the cell separates into two prokaryotic cells.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

The Structures of Genetic Material

DNA is comprised of nucleotides, each of which is

made up of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group,
and a base. There are four bases: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Across the
middle of the helix, A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
DNA is shaped like a long, spiraling double helix.

How are nucleotides arranged within the double

helix?
 UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

 
DNA Replication
When DNA is replicated during interphase, the double helix unwinds
and each strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand. Each
new double helix contains one original strand and one new strand.
This is called semi-conservative replication because each new DNA
molecule has half of the original DNA.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Chromosomes
There is no relationship between the number of chromosomes an organism has in its cells
and the complexity of the organism.
 

  Humans have 46 chromosomes in every somatic

cell. There is a set of 23 chromosomes from
each parent (mom and dad). The sets are homologous;
they contain the same sequence of genes (traits). So chromosome
# 5 for mom and #5 for dad will have similar gene sequence. They
also have the same length, location of the centromere, and stain
banding pattern. However, they can contain different alleles
(forms) of a gene.
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Chromosomes
One of the pairs of human chromosomes are called the sex chromosomes as they determine the sex of the individual. The two
chromosomes, called X and Y, are in fact not homologous but are still called a pair. This is known as the 23rd pair of chromosomes.

XX = female
XY = male

The remaining pairs of chromosomes, 1through 22 are called autosomes, and each one has a true homologous pair.
Homologous Chromosomes
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Karyotypes
A karyotype is a person’s particular set of chromosomes. The chromosomes are collected and stained when a cell is in metaphase so they appear as sister chromatid “Xs.”

This is a human karyotype. The chromosome pairs are arranged and numbered in order of their length, from
longest to shortest. The sex chromosomes are placed last in a karyotype. Note that the banding patterns
between homologous chromosomes are different in this image because of the type of dye that was used.

What stage of Mitosis can this the Karyotype be from?

Mitosis Review
UNIT 2 Chapter 4: Cell Division and Reproduction Section 4.1

Section 4.1 Review

Homework:

Pg. 168 #1-5,8-11,13, 14,17