Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-2

General principle of geophysical exploration; Electrical Resistivity Method and Seismic Refraction
Method

General Principles of Geophysical Investigations:

The geophysical methods are indirect methods of subsurface explorations which are used extensively
with the application of geophysical techniques for obtaining fairly accurate idea of subsurface geology.
The subsurface geophysical technique provides in-situ measurements of physical, electrical, or
geochemical properties of the subsurface which can be used to determine the stratigraphic framework,
depth to bedrock, location of voids, faults or fractures, presence of buried materials and
presence of groundwater . The information obtained from such investigations can be used to
determine the subsurface conditions at and the vicinity of a site.

Surface Geophysical Methods:

The most commonly used geophysical methods which are used for site investigations of
civil engineering projects are:

• Electrical Resistivity Methods

• Seismic Methods
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-2

Electrical Resistivity Methods:

Principle:
Electrical resistivity method, also known as galvanic electrical method, measures Earth resistivity (the
inverse of conductivity). The electrical resistivity is a function of porosity, permeability, water saturation
and the concentration of dissolved solids in pore, fluids within the subsurface. The technique uses a
direct or low frequency current source. By measuring the electrical resistance, the method can be used
to locate fracture zones, faults, buried valleys, location of aquifers, clay lenses and sand
channels etc. The measurements can also help to resolve sediment depth and thickness, depth to
bedrock and depth to groundwater.

In the resistivity method, artificially generated electrical currents are introduced through the ground using
a pair of surface electrodes. The resulting voltage is measured at the surface between a second pair of
electrodes; greater the spacing between electrodes the greater is the depth of measurement. Usually,
the depth of investigation is less than the spacing between electrodes. Deviations from the pattern of
potential differences expected from homogeneous ground furnish information on the form of electrical
properties of subsurface in-homogeneities. The resistivity of the soil and rock is calculated based on the
electrode separation, the geometry of the electrode array, the applied current, and the measured voltage.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-2

The resistivity technique may be used for profiling or sounding. Profiling provide a means of mapping
lateral changes in subsurface electrical properties to a given depth and is well suited to the delineation
of hydrogeologic anomalies. Sounding measurements provide a means of determining the vertical
changes in subsurface electrical properties. Interpretation of sounding data provides the depth,
thickness, and resistivity of subsurface layers.

Advantages:
•It is a very rapid and economical method.
•The instrumentation method is very simple.
•It is non destructive method.
•It can provide accurate estimates of depth, thickness and electrical resistivity of subsurface layers.
•It is good upto 30 m.
•The method is useful for groundwater exploration and determination of overburden thickness.

Limitations:

Electrical resistivity technique has a number of limitations. These are:

•Electrodes must be in direct contact with soil; if concrete or asphalt is present, holes must be drilled for
inserting the electrodes and then refilled when the survey is complete.
•For deep investigations, electrode arrays can be quite long. The distance between outside electrodes
must be 2 to 3 times the depth of investigation.
•Measurements may be limited by highly conductive or highly resistive surface soils. If shallow clays and
extremely shallow groundwater are present, most of the current may concentrate at the surface.
•Electrical resistivity surveys require a fairly large area, far away from power lines and grounded metallic
structures such as metal fences, pipelines and railway tracks.
•The field work is labour intensive as a minimum of three crew members are required for the field work.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-2
Seismic Refraction Methods:

Seismic refraction is the most applicable seismic technique for assessing subsurface conditions like
sediment depth, thickness of sediments, fractures, faults, depth to bedrock, and depth to ground water.

Principle:
Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle governed by Snell’s Law of refraction. The method utilizes the
refraction of seismic waves by rock or soil layers to characterize the subsurface geological conditions and
geologic structures. In this method, it is the velocity of refracted waves that is determined. The seismic
refraction technique utilizes energy source, such as a sledge hammer or small explosives, to create
acoustic waves in the subsurface. When there is a change in the seismic velocity of the waves travelling
from one layer to the next, refracted waves are created. These waves are recorded by geophone sensors
(i.e. seismic wave receivers) arranged in a direct line from the energy source. The time it takes the waves
to refract is dependent on the composition, cementation, density, and degree of weathering and fracturing
of the subsurface materials. Attached figure presents a schematic drawing of seismic refraction operating
principles. This seismic method is generally applied to shallow investigations only upto about maximum
hundred metres deep. Up to three and sometimes four layers of soil and rock can normally be
determined; if a sufficient velocity difference or contrast exists between adjacent layers.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-2

Advantages:
•It can resolve three to four layers of stratigraphy and provide good depth estimates.
•It is fairly easy to implement, and the energy source can simply be a sledge hammer.
•It is useful to obtain depth information at locations between boreholes. Subsurface information can be
obtained between boreholes at a fraction of the cost of drilling.
•Refraction data can be used to determine the depth to the water table or bedrock.
•The technique is very useful in buried valley areas to map the depth to bedrock or thickness of
overburden
•The velocity information obtained from a refraction survey can be related to various physical properties
of the bedrock.

Limitations:
•Refraction method cannot detect a lower velocity layer beneath a higher velocity layer
•It cannot detect thin layers.
•Geophone spreads may be as much as five times as long as the desired depth of investigation,
therefore, limiting its use in congested locations. Although seismic refraction can be used for depths
below 100 m, it is usually used for depths less than 30 m because of very long geophone spreads
required and the energy sources necessary to reach these depths.
•If numerous buried utilities are in the vicinity of these seismic profiles, they may interfere with the
collection of usable data by creating a false layer near the surface.
•Data collection is labour intensive.
•Seismic velocities of geologic layers must increase with depth.
•Although this situation is typical, conditions such as frozen soil or buried pavements will prevent
detection of underlying formations.
•For success, the apparent dip of the units or layers should be less than 10 to 15 0.
•Seismic methods are sensitive to acoustic noise and vibrations.