CE-885 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION

Dr. Abdul Jabbar- NUST

ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY METHODS
 Electrical Resistivity

• Resistivity surveying investigates variations of

electrical resistance, by causing an electrical
current to flow through the subsurface using wires
(electrodes) connected to the ground.
– Resistivity = 1 / Conductivity
 General Introduction
• Link resistivity (i.e., the ability of the earth to prevent the conduction of an
electric current) to the subsurface structure.

• Useful because resistivity of earth materials varies by around 10 orders of

magnitude.

• Uses: archeology, environmental, mineral exploration, and groundwater

investigations
Earth Properties and Basic Theory
1. Introduction 3.3 Current Flow in Layered Media
1.1 Active and Passive
3.4 Variation in Apparent Resistivity
1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
3.5 Current Flow in Layered Media
1.3 Electrical Methods Overview
4. Equipment and Field Procedures
2. Basics of Resistivity
4.1 Equipment
2.1 Current Flow and Ohm's Law
4.2 Soundings and Profiles
2.2 Resistivity, NOT Resistance
4.3 Soundings: Wenner and Schlumberger
2.3 Current Density & Electric Field
4.4 Electrode Spacing and Resistivity Plots
2.4 Rocks Resistivities
2.5 Current Flow bet . Electrodes 4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

2.6 Measuring Resistivity 4.6 Profiles

3. Resistivity and Geology 5. Interpretation

3.1 Sources of Noise 5.1 Curves for Soundings: One-Layered Media

3.2 Depth vs. Electrode Spacing 5.2 Curves for Soundings: Two-Layered Media
 1. Introduction
A resistivity survey is the
observation of electric fields
caused by current introduced into
the ground as a means of studying
earth resistivity in geophysical
exploration.
Resistivity is the property
of a material that resists the flow
of electrical current. The term is
normally restricted to include only
those methods in which a direct
current, is used to measure the
apparent resistivity.
 1.1 Active versus Passive

Passive:
Passive geophysical surveys incorporate measurements of
naturally occurring fields or properties of the earth.

Example: Magnetic and Gravity

Active:
In active geophysical surveys, a signal is injected into the earth
and we then measure how the earth responds to this signal.

Example: Resistivity and Seismic

 1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Active Passive
Advantage Disadvantage Advantage Disadvantage
Because both sources and Surveyor need only record a
Less control of noise because
Better control of noise sources receivers are under the surveyor's naturally occurring field;
source of the signal is out of the
.through control of injected signal control,, field equipment tends to therefore, he need supply only a
.control of the surveyor
.be more complex .sensor and a data recorder

Because passive fields are

Because propagating fields are Field operations are generally
Field operations and logistics are generally the result of integrating
generally measured, active very time efficient. Thus, passive
generally more complex and time anomalous geologic contributions
experiments usually provide experiments can be run over
consuming than passive over wide areas, identification of
better depth control over source wider areas in a more cost-
.experiments the source of an anomalous
.of anomalous signal .effective manner
.reading can be difficult

Many different source/receiver

configurations can be used
allowing for a wide variety of
survey designs. This allows survey greater survey design costs and
designers great flexibility in
customizing surveys for
.particular problems
One or two well-established field
The increase in the number of
procedures are generally used.
field options inevitably leads to This limits the amount of
Contractors can provide these
customization that can be done
surveys on short notice with
potentially to increased .for specific problems
relatively easily quantifiable
.probability of field mishaps
.results

The data sets collected in passive

Once set up, active experiments
are capable of producing vast
quantities of data that can be used
to interpret subtle details of the
.earth's subsurface
The large quantity of data
obtained in many active
experiments can become
overwhelming to process and
.interpret
Interpretation of the limited set
experiments are smaller than
of observations can be
those collected in active
accomplished with modest
experiments and usually do not
computational requirements
allow for as detailed an
.quickly and efficiently
interpretation
 1.3 Electrical Methods Overview

Electrical methods employ a variety of measurements of the

effects of electrical current flow within the Earth. The phenomena
that can be measured include current flow, electrical potential, and
electromagnetic fields. A summary of the well-known electrical
methods is given below:

•DC Resistivity
•Induced Polarization (IP)
•Self Potential (SP)
•Electromagnetic (EM)
•Magnetotelluric (MT)
 1.3 Electrical Methods Overview
DC Resistivity
This is an active method that employs measurements of electrical
potential associated with subsurface electrical current flow generated
by a DC. Factors that affect the measured potential, and thus can be
mapped using this method, include the presence and quality of pore
fluids and clays. Our discussions will focus solely on this method.
Induced Polarization (IP)
This is an active method that employs measurements of the transient
(short-term) variations in potential as the current is initially applied
or removed from the ground. When a current is applied to the
ground, the ground behaves much like a capacitor, storing some of
the applied current as a charge that is dissipated upon removal of the
current. In this process, both capacitive and electrochemical effects
are responsible. IP is commonly used to detect concentrations of clay
and electrically conductive metallic mineral grains.
 1.3 Electrical Methods Overview
Self Potential (SP)
This is a passive method that employs measurements of naturally
occurring electrical potentials commonly associated with the
weathering of sulfide ore bodies. Measurable electrical potentials
have also been observed in association with ground-water flow and
certain biologic processes
Electromagnetic (EM)
This is an active method that employs measurements of a time-
varying magnetic field generated by induction through current flow
within the earth. In this technique, a time-varying magnetic field is
generated at the surface of the earth that produces a time-varying
electrical current in the earth through induction. Electromagnetic
method is used for locating conductive base-metal deposits, for
locating buried pipes and cables, for the detection of unexploded
ordnance, and for near-surface geophysical mapping.
 1.3 Electrical Methods Overview
Magnetotelluric (MT)
This is a passive method that employs measurements of naturally
occurring electrical currents, or telluric currents, generated by
magnetic induction of electrical currents in the ionosphere. This
method can be used to determine electrical properties of materials at
relatively great depths (down to and including the mantle) inside the
Earth. In this technique, a time variation in electrical potential is
measured at a base station and at survey stations. Differences in the
recorded signal are used to estimate subsurface distribution of
electrical resistivity.
 2. Resistivity Basics
2.1 Current Flow and Ohm's Law

V=IR
In 1827, Georg Ohm found that the
current (I) was proportional to the
voltage (V) for a broad class of materials
that we now refer to as ohmic materials.
The constant of proportionality is called
the resistance (R) of the material and has
the units of voltage (volts) over current
(amperes), or ohms.
Georg Ohm
 2.1 Current Flow and Ohm's Law
In principle, it is relatively
simple to measure the
resistance of a strand of
wire. Connect a battery to a
wire of known voltage and
then measure the current
flowing through the wire.
The voltage divided by the current yields the resistance of the wire.
This is how your multimeter measures resistance. In making this
measurement, however, we must ask two crucial questions.
1. How is the measured resistance related to some fundamental
property of the material from which the wire is made?
2. How can we apply this relatively simple experiment to
determine electrical properties of earth materials?
 2.2 Resistivity NOT Resistance
The problem with using
resistance as a measurement
is that it depends not only
on the material from which
the wire is made, but also
on the geometry of the wire.
So, we want to define a
property that describes a material's ability to transmit electrical
current that is independent of the geometrical factors. The
geometrically-independent quantity that is used is called resistivity
and is usually indicated by the Greek symbol ρ.
Resistivity (ρ) is a fundamental parameter of the material making
up the wire that describes how easily the wire can transmit an
electrical current.
 2.3 Resistivity of Earth Materials
Like magnetic Material Resistivity (Ohm-meter)
susceptibilities, there is a large Air Infinite
Pyrite 0.3
range of resistivities, not only
Galena 0.002
between varying rocks and Quartz 40,000,000,000- 200,000,000,000,000
minerals but also within rocks Calcite 100,000,000,000- 10,000,000,000,000
of the same type. This range of Rock Salt 30- 10,000,000,000,000
Mica 90,000,000,000- 100,000,000,000,000
resistivities, as described above, Granite 100 – 1,000,000
is primarily a function of fluid Gabbro 1,000- 1,000,000
content. Thus, the target for Basalt 10 – 10,000,000
Limestones 50 - 10,000,000
electrical surveys is to identify Sandstones 1 - 100,000,000
fluid saturated zones. For Shales 20 – 2,000
example, resistivity methods Dolomite 100 - 10,000
Sand 1 - 1,000
are used in engineering and Clay 1 - 100
environmental studies for the Water 0.5 - 300
identification of the water table. Sea Water 0.2
 2.4 Current Densities and Equipotentials
If a current is injected to the
ground and measured a
distance away, the voltage
would be constant along
circular lines centered at the
electrode. These circular
lines are referred to as
Equipotentials

Current density is defined as the amount of current passing

through a unit area of an equipotential surface. Thus, close to the
electrode, the current crossing any equipotential surface
normalized by the area of the surface will thus be high. Far away
from the electrode, current density is small. Current density has the
units of Amperes per meter squared (Ampere/m2).
 2.5 Current Flow and Ohm's Law
V is voltage, I is current, ρ
is resistivity, and r is
distance between the
current electrode and the
point the voltage is
measured. Notice that this
expression is nothing more
than Ohm's law with the
resistance, R equal to ρ over
2πr
 2.6 Current Flow From Two Electrodes
If we place two
current electrodes, current
distribution and equipotential
lines produced within a
homogeneous earth become
more complicated.
 2.7 A Practical Way to Measure
Resistivity
Knowing the locations of the
four electrodes, and by
measuring the amount of current
input into the ground (i) and the
voltage difference between the
two potential electrodes (ΔV)
we can compute the apparent
resistivity of the medium (ρa)
using the following equation:
 3. Resistivity and Geology
3.1 Sources of Noise
• Electrode Polarization
• Telluric Currents
• Nearby Conductors
• Low Resistivity Layer Near Surface
• Near Electrode Geology and Topography
• Induction in Measuring Cables
 3.2 Depth vs. Electrode Spacing
Small electrode spacing means small depth of penetration of electric
currents. Large electrode spacing means large depth of penetration of
electric currents. Thus, increasing the electrode spacing means larger
depth of penetration of currents BUT it needs larger electric source.
3.3 Resistive Layer Over Conductive Layer
3.4 Conductive Layer Over Resistive Layer
 4. Equipment and Field Procedures
4.1 Equipment
• Current Source
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Electrodes
• Cables
 4.2 Soundings and Profiles
Resistivity Sounding is a method to detect variations in resistivity
that occur solely with depth. In principle, electrode spacing is
varied for each measurement. The center of the electrode array,
where the electrical potential is measured, however, remains fixed.
Depth to water table

Resistivity Profiling is a method to detect lateral variations in

resistivity like gravity and magnetic methods. Profiles employ
fixed electrode spacing, and the center of the electrode spread is
moved for each reading.
Detection of faults
 4.3 Soundings: Wenner and Schlumberger

In Schlumberger array, In Wenner array,

5 MN << AB AM = MN = NB
 4.4 Wenner vs. Schlumberger
Schlumberger Wenner
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Move the current All four electrodes,
electrodes only for must be moved for
most readings. each reading.
Very sensitive Less sensitive
voltmeters are voltmeters are
required. required.
Because the potential Because all
electrodes remain in electrodes are moved
fixed locations, the for each reading, this
effects of near method is susceptible
surface lateral to near surface,
variations in lateral variations in
resistivity are resistivity.
reduced.
Interpretation is Interpretation is
limited to simple, limited to simple,
 4.6 Profiles

When the electrode array is far

from the vertical fault, the
measured apparent resistivity is
equal to the resistivity of the
underlying rock. As the array
approaches the fault, the
resistivity varies in a
discontinuous fashion. That is,
the change in resistivity with
electrode position does not vary
smoothly. The discontinuities in
the resistivity profile correspond
to array locations where
electrodes move across the fault.
 5. Interpretation
For electrical soundings, electrode spacings commonly are
chosen so that they are evenly spaced in log distance rather than being
evenly spaced in linear distance to address the problem described
above. Shown below is a plot of log apparent resistivity versus log
electrode spacing, where the distance interval is now chosen to be
evenly spaced in log distance rather than linear distance. Now there
are approximately as many samples showing apparent resistivities of
500 ohm-m as there are of 50 ohm-m. In addition, the transition
between these two extremes is well-sampled.

The most common electrode spacing used is one that employs

6 soundings for every decade in distance. For this example, using six
points per decade would yield electrode spacings of 0.25, 3.67, 5.39,
7.91, 1.16, 1.70, 2.5, 3.67, 5.39, 7.91, 11.6, 17.0, 25.0, 36.7, 53.9,
79.1, 116.0, 170.0, 250.0.
 5.1 Curves for Soundings: One-Layered Media
A 10-meter thick, 5000 ohm-m layer
overlies a halfspace that has a resistivity less
than 5000 ohm-m. Shown below are
apparent resistivity curves computed
assuming various values of resistivity for the
halfspace (2500, 1000, 500, 50, 10, 5 ohm-
m). All of the curves approach the resistivity
of the layer, 5000 ohm-m, at small electrode
spacing. As electrode spacing increases, the
apparent resistivity curves approach the true
resistivity of the halfspace In addition, note
that the resistivity curves all tend to show the
greatest change in apparent resistivity with
electrode spacing when electrode spacings
equal the depth of the layer, 10 m.
 5.2 Curves for Soundings: Two-Layered Media
This structure consists of two
layers overlying a halfspace. A suite of
resistivity curves, each generated assuming
a different resistivity for the underlying
halfspace, is shown below. At small
electrode spacings, all of the curves
approach the resistivity of the top layer. As
electrode spacing increases, resistivity
decreases and then increases at larger
electrode spacings. At the curve's lowest
point, the apparent resistivity does not
approach 250 ohm-m, the resistivity of the
middle layer. It is still possible, though, to
discern the presence of the three layers and
qualitatively estimate their resistivities.
 Horizontal Profiling
• Used for rapid location/delineation of
lateral variations in resistivity.
• Usually involves moving an electrode
array of constant separation
horizontally along surface.
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
 App. Resistivity

Station
App. Resistivity NB: Different arrays produce somewhat different results.

Station
 Vertical Electric Sounding

• When trying to probe how

resistivity changes with
depth, need multiple
measurements that each give
a different depth sensitivity.

• This is accomplished through

resistivity sounding where
greater electrode separation
gives greater depth
sensitivity.
(Sharma 1997)
Station
 Combined Sounding and Profiling
• Increase electrode separation
Wenner Pseudo-Section
as well as make
measurements at multiple
locations along the horizontal
axis.
• Provides data for two
dimensional interpretation of
subsurface.
• Data often plotted in pseudo-
section for qualitative
analysis. (Reynolds 1997)

Wenner: h=a/2
Schlumberger: h=L/3
Dipole Dipole: h=n a
 Pseudo-Sections

(Reynolds 1997)

• Can sometimes be used to

qualitatively assess geology

• Warning: Can also prove to be very

difficult to interpret directly, with
different arrays yielding very different
results.
An example of how the distribution of a physical property (electrical
conductivity in this case) can be measured to provide information
about geologic materials.

1. The physical properties under this surface are unknown.  A

geophysical survey - DC resistivity in this case - is used to generate
data.
2. Current is injected into the ground, and resulting voltages are
measured as electrode geometry varies. In this case, voltages get
smaller as electrodes are separated further and further apart.
3. Inversion of this data set produces an estimate of a "layered
earth" or 1D model of the relevant physical property - electrical
conductivity.
4. Interpretation converts the model into geological information.