CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR

FUNCTIONING
 “
INQUIRY QUESTION:
“What distinguish one cell from
another?”
 CONTENT TO BE COVERED

○ Basics of Cells
□ The difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell
○ Cellular Structures
□ Components of cells as viewed under a LIGHT microscope
□ Components of cells as viewed under an ELECTRON microscope
THE BASICS OF CELLS
The difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
 Different Cells
○ Cells vary in size, shape, composition, function and mobility.
□ Unicellular organisms carry out all of
the processes needed to support life
□ Cells that are part of a multicellular
(many-celled, complex) organism may
carry out a specialised role and rely on
other cells working together to
provide some of their needs and
remove their waste
 Different Cells
○ Cells are classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic
○ Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have some features in common but can be readily
distinguished by observing their size and structure
The Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
 Prokaryotic Cells
○ Prokaryotic organisms include a range of
types of bacteria, some of which live in
‘extreme’ environments such as highly salty,
hot, acidic, alkaline or without oxygen and
may be called ‘extremophiles’.
○ They are mainly unicellular
 Prokaryotic Cells
○ Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission. They have:
□ A cellular membrane and cytoplasm
□ No membrane-enclosed organelles
□ Genetic material (DNA) in a region called
the nucleoid; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
may be in a circular chromosome and also
sometimes in small circular plasmids
□ Ribosomes
□ A cell wall often surrounded by a capsule
and projections such as flagella and pili
 Eukaryotic Cells
○ Eukaryotic organisms include all plants, animals, fungi (multicellular organisms) as well
as protists (unicellular or colonial organisms)
○ They may develop specialised structures and functions to enable coordinated activities
needed in colonial or multicellular organisms
 Eukaryotic Cells
○ Eukaryotic cells reproduce by mitosis. They have:
□ A cellular membrane and cytoplasm
□ A nucleus that contains the genetic material
(DNA) on linear chromosomes
□ Ribosomes
□ A variety of membrane-bound organelles and
vesicles
□ A cytoskeleton of microtubules and microfibers
 Summary
Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Nucleus Absent Present

Size Most in range 1-10µm (1,000 - 10,000nm) Most in the range 10 - 100µm

Genetic material Found clumped in nucleoid; DNA wrapped around proteins, called histones in
DNA occurs as a single circular chromosome or a nucleus; located on linear chromosomes when cells
smaller circular plasmid divide

Ribosomes Small but may be numerous (up to 350,000 per cell) Large (small ones may be inside some organelles)

Cell wall Usually present, complex composition Present in plant and fungi cells, simple composition

Membrane-enclosed Absent Present

organelles

Cell division Usually binary fission Mitosis

THE CELL
Under a Light Microscope
 Protoplasm
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ Protoplasm - Essential function of life are carried out e.g. growth and respiration
○ The cytoplasm consists of a liquid based background, the cytosol, in which there are
dissolved chemical substances (e.g. chloride ions), suspended organelles and insoluble
granules.

○ Approximately 90% of the

cytoplasm is water - the medium in
which all cell chemicals are
dissolved or suspended
 Nucleus
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ The nucleus appears as a large,

spherical, oval or sometime elongate
structure in the cytoplasm
○ It is colourless, transparent and slightly
more jelly-like than the rest of the cell
○ Most organisms have one nucleus per
cell.
 Nucleus
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ The nucleus contains the chromosome which

controls the development and functioning of the
whole cell.
 Cell Membrane
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ The cell membrane (alternate names

are the plasma membrane, cytoplasmic
membrane or plasmalemma) surrounds
the cell contents in all cells and
separates the cell contents from its
surroundings
○ It controls the passage of water and
other chemical substances into and out
of cells.
 Chloroplast
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ Plant cells have some additional structures

○ Chloroplasts are organelle that are green in colour, due to the presence of a pigment
called chlorophyll
○ Chloroplasts are responsible for
photosynthesis
○ They are not present in all plant
cells, only in green tissues of
plants
 Cell Wall
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ Cell walls are non-living structures which give shape and rigidity to the cell they
surround
○ The cell membrane still surround the internal cell contents, but is often not visible
because it is pressed up against the cell wall.
 Vacuoles
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ Vacuoles in plant cells are large, permanent, fluid-filled sacs in the cytoplasm of mature
cells
○ Each vacuole consists of a watery solution called cell sap, surrounded by a single
membrane, the tonoplast
○ Cell sap contains substances such as
mineral salts, sugars and amino acids
dissolved in water
○ It may also contain dissolved
pigments that give cells their colour
 Vacuoles
(as seen using a light microscope)

○ Besides having a storage function, vacuoles play a very important role in providing
support to plant cells
○ By filling up with water, the vacuole pushes outwards with the cytoplasm, exerting a
pressure on the cell wall, keeping it firm.
○ As a result the outward pressure of
the cell contents and the resisting
pressure of the cell wall, the cell
becomes firm or ‘turgid’
THE CELL
Under an Electron Microscope
 Nucleus & Nucleolus Pores
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The nucleus stores the information needed to control all cell activities. It is therefore
essential for the nucleus to be able to communicate with the surrounding cytoplasm
○ Electron micrographs reveal that the nucleus is surrounded by a double nuclear
membrane or nuclear envelope, pierced by tiny pores

■ These pores regulate the passage of

substances between the nucleus and
cytoplasm, allowing communication
between them
 Nucleus & Nucleolus Pores
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The nucleolus is a dense, granular region commonly seen within the nucleoplasm, and
it contains a large amount of nucleic acid - some DNA, but mostly RNA

○ The nucleolus is responsible for the

manufacture of organelle called
ribosomes, essential ‘machinery’ of the
cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The outer nuclear membrane is usually

continuous with a network of flattened,
interconnected membranes - the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
○ The ER provides a connection of pathways
between the nucleus and the cell’s
environment, allowing intracellular
transport (transport within a cell)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The immense folding of the sheets of

membrane increase its surface area
○ ER may have ribosomes attached (rough
ER) or have no ribosomes (smooth ER)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The main function of ER is transport, but it also plays

a role in processing cell products:
□ Rough ER fold and processes proteins products made
by the cell and it also synthesise lipids
□ Smooth ER is the main site of lipid production, essential
for membrane repair and manufacture
 Ribosomes
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Ribosomes are small organelles that

appear as dense granules in electron
micrographs of cells
○ Their small size and round shape
increase their surface area for easy
interaction with chemicals during their
functioning
○ Each is made of the chemicals RNA
and proteins, and their function is
protein synthesis
 Ribosomes
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Ribosomes are the ‘machinery’ that carries out the genetically coded instruction of DNA
to produce proteins necessary for cell functioning and structure
○ Ribosomes may be found free in the cytoplasm or scattered over the surface of ER

○ Newly synthesised proteins pass

from the ribosomes into the ER
where they folding of the protein
occurs
 Golgi Bodies
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Golgi bodies are specialised areas of the endoplasmic reticulum

○ The golgi body is easily recognisable by its curved shape on one surface, where vesicles
can be seen budding off. The surface is called the folding face and the vesicles are
evidence of the secretory function of golgi bodies.
 Golgi Bodies
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Golgi bodies process, package and ‘sort’ cell products.

○ They are involved in adding proteins and carbohydrates to cell products and they also
provide a membrane around the cell products to ‘package’ them
○ Features of the membrane are used to ‘sort’ these
products, determining where they will end up - they may
be transported within the cell to wherever they are
required or they may be secreted out of the cell
 Lysosomes
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ One example of the products of a Golgi bodies are lysosomes

○ These are little fluid-filled sacs, most commonly seen in animals cells
○ They are surrounded by a
single membrane and the
vesicles is filled with
digestive enzymes, for
intracellular digestion
 Lysosomes
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Lysosomes commonly break down worn out cell organelles, so that the materials can be
recycled and used to make a new organelle
 Mitochondria
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Mitochondria are the ‘powerhouse’ of a cell,

producing energy by the process of chemical
respiration
○ Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped but may be
round; they vary in both shape and size
○ Mitochondria are smaller than the nucleus and
chloroplast, but larger than ribosomes
 Mitochondria
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double membrane:

□ The outer membrane gives the mitochondria
its shape and allows the passage of small
substances into and out of mitochondria
□ The inner membrane is folded into fine, finger-
like ridges or cristae - this increases the
surface area for the attachment of groups of
enzymes that are responsible for making
energy for the cell
 Mitochondria
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The central space in a mitochondrion is filled with a fluid and is termed the matrix

○ It contains mitochondrial
DNA and enzymes that give
mitochondria the unusual
feature of being able to
replicate themselves
 Mitochondria
(as seen using an electron microscope)
 Mitochondria
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Just as machines in a factory need

electrical energy in order to work; cells
need energy, in the form of a chemical
called ATP, to work
○ Mitochondria combine oxygen with
sugars during the process of chemical
respiration to release energy in a form
(ATP) that the cell can use
 Chloroplast
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ Chloroplast are surrounded by a double

membrane which allows substances to
pass between the cytoplasm and the
chloroplast, but unlike mitochondria, the
inner membrane of the chloroplast is not
folded
 Chloroplast
(as seen using an electron microscope)

○ The liquid background of the chloroplast is called the stroma and it is here that stacks
of membranes called thylakoids are found
○ Each stack or group of thylakoids is
termed a granum and the green
pigment chlorophyll, is found on these
membranes
 Chloroplast
(as seen using an electron microscope)
 Animal or Plant?

○ The difference between plants and animals (eukaryotic organisms) can be understood
by examining the differences in their cells.