EEE 5401

Power Plant Engineering

Energy Resources

Md. Minarul Islam, Lecturer

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
University of Dhaka
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
Energy Resources

Fossil Fuel Renewable Atomic

 Hydro  Nuclear
 Coal
 solar
 Oil
 Wind
 Natural Gas
 Geothermal

Others
 Biofuels and Waste
 Biomass
Coal
 In geologic past, due to natural processes such as flooding, the dense
forests in low-lying wetland, were buried underneath soil.

 As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed.
The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper.

 As the process continued the plant matter was protected

from biodegradation and oxidation, usually by mud or acidic water.

 This trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually
covered and deeply buried by sediments.

 Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly
converted to coal.

 As coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into

coal is called carbonization.
 Type of Coal:
 Steam coal--- (anthracite, other bituminous coal and
sub-bituminous coal)

 Coking Coal

 Lignite

 Peat
 Anthracite
 Anthracite is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic luster.

 It has the highest carbon content (92.1% and 98%), the fewest impurities, and
the highest calorific content of all types of coal except for graphite.

 Anthracite is categorized into standard grade, which is used mainly in power

generation, and high grade (HG) and ultra high grade (UHG), the principal uses
of which are in the metallurgy sector.

 The heat content of anthracite ranges from 22 to 28 million Btu per

short ton (26 to 33 MJ/kg) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.

Anthracite (Ibbenbüren, Anthracite (near Bay City,

Anthracite Germany) Michigan)
 Bituminous Coal
Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal
Containing a tarlike substance called bitumen.
 It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer
quality than anthracite.

 The carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80%

 The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg (21 million to
30 million BTU per short ton) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.

Sub-bituminous coal
 Sub-bituminous coal is a type of coal whose properties range from those of
lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for
steam-electric power generation.

 The heat content of sub-

bituminous coals range from
8300 to 11,500BTu/lb or
19,306 to 26,749 kJ/kg.
Steam coal Production:
 Lignite
 Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is a soft brown combustible
sedimentary rock formed from naturally compressed peat.

 It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its

relatively low heat content.
 It has a carbon content around 60–70%.

 It is mined all around the world and is used almost

exclusively as a fuel for steam-electric power
generation, but is also mined for its germanium
content in China.

 As of 2014, about 12% of Germany's energy and,

specifically, 27% of Germany's electricity comes
from lignite power plants, while in Greece, lignite
provides about 50% of its power needs.

 The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20

MJ/kg (9–17 million BTU per short ton) on a moist,
mineral-matter-free basis.
Lignite Production
Peat
 Peat is soft and easily compressed.

 Under pressure, water in the peat is forced out.

 Upon drying, peat can be used as fuel.

 It has industrial importance as a fuel in some

countries, such as Ireland and Finland, where it
is harvested on an industrial scale.

 In many countries, including Ireland and

Scotland, where trees are often scarce, peat is
traditionally used for cooking and domestic
heating.

 Stacks of drying peat dug from the bogs can still

be seen in some rural areas.

 Peat's insulating properties make it of use to

industry.
Peat
Coking Coal
 Coking coal is an essential ingredient in steel production.

 It is different to thermal coal which is used to generate power.

 Coking coal, also known as metallurgic coal, is heated in

a coke oven which forces out impurities to produce coke, which
is almost pure carbon.
Coking Coal Production
Coal Use in Power Plant
 When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and
then combusted (burned) in a furnace with a boiler.

 The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to
spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity.
Natural Gas:

 Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting

 primarily of methane,
 varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and
 a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, orhelium.

 It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are

exposed to intense heat and pressure supplied by existing under the
surface of the Earth over millions of years.

 The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the
form of chemical bonds in the gas.
Natural Gas:

Power generation

 Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the

use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines.

 Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association

with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for
alimenting peak-load power stations functioning in tandem with
hydroelectric plants.

 Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid

engine-generators use natural gas.
Natural Gas:
 Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines
with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode.

 Natural gas burns more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil and
coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.

 For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less

carbon dioxide than burning petroleum.

 For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about

45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power.

 The gross heat of combustion of 1 m3 of commercial quality natural

gas is around 39 MJ (≈10.8 kWh), but this can vary by several
percent.

 This comes to about 49 MJ (≈13.5 kWh) for 1 kg of natural gas

(assuming a density of 0.8 kg m−3, an approximate value).
Oil
 A small amount of electricity is produced by diesel, but it is more
polluting and more expensive than natural gas.

 It is often used as a backup fuel for peaking power plants in case the
supply of natural gas is interrupted or as the main fuel for small
electrical generators.

 Hi-speed diesel (HSD) have good cetane number 56-60 whereas

normal diesel have cetane number ranging from 45-55.

So, hi speed diesel have better combustion thereby achieving good
performance as well as cleaner emissions.

 Now a days, hi speed diesel have special additives that even cleans
the carbon deposits on fuel injector
Oil
 Furnace Oil is one of the cheapest fuels available for industrial use.

 It is a by-product of petroleum refineries.

 While processing the CRUD Oil, FO ( Furnace Oil ) is one of the

products along with other petroleum fuels like HSD, Petrol etc..
 Coal Composition and Analyses
Three components
 coal substance

 Mineral matters

 moisture

Two method are used to analyze coal:

 Ultimate analyses and

 Proximate Analyses
Ultimate Analysis:

 This method shows the chemical elements that comprise the coal
substance, together with ash and moisture.

 This method is based on weight percentage. The sum of the

percentages is 100.

 Coal components: C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen, O = Oxygen, N =

Nitrogen, S =Sulfur, A = Ash, W = Moisture.

 Ash may also includes clay, slate, or dirt that may have fallen into
the coal.
Ultimate Analysis:
Ultimate analyses may be shown on three different bases

As- received,
C+H+O+N+S+A+W = 100

Dry coal
C+H+O+N+S+A = 100,
calculated by dividing each as-received item by a factor 1-(W/100)

Combustible.
C+H+O+N+S = 100
calculated by dividing each as-received item by a factor 1-(W+A)/100)

When all the items are shown, it is an ultimate analysis on an as-

received.
Example: A bituminous coal has the following as-received analysis:
C = 80.5, H = 4.1, O= 3.0, N = 1.5, S = 1.2, A = 5.3, W = 4.4

Calculate the analysis on the dry basis and combustible basis.

Dry-Basis analysis: Combustible Basis:

For dry basis, multiplication factor Multiplication factor

= 1/(1-(A+W)/100) = 1.107
= 1/(1-(W/100)) = 1/(1-(4.4/100))
= 1.046. So, C = 80.5×1.107= 89.1
H = 4.1×1.107=4.54
So, C = 80.5×1.046 = 84.2 O = 3×1.107=3.32
H = 4.1×1.046=4.3 N = 1.5×1.107=1.66
O = 3×1.046=3.1 S = 1.2×1.107=1.33
N = 1.5×1.046=1.6
S = 1.2×1.046=1.3 So, C+H+O+N+S = 99.95,
A = 5.3×1.046=5.5
If you use all the fractional
So C+H+O+N+S+A = 100 value, you will get 100.
 Proximate Analyses:
This method shows the following factors on a weight percentage
basis with the symbols
FC = Fixed carbon
VCM = Volatile Combustible matter
A = Ash
W = Moisture.
 Ash and Moisture are same as ultimate analysis method and are obtained by
completely burning and drying a sample of coal.

 Volatile combustible matter is found by heating and weighing a sample in a

standard test until the volatile gases and moisture are driven off.
Proximate Analyses:
 Fixed carbon is found by
FC = 100-W-A-VCM.

 The proximate analysis method may be given also on the as-received,

dry or combustible basis.

 This method gives more of a physical picture of the coal and is simple
to determine.

 It is used to classify coal and helps in predicting the behavior of coals

during actual combustion process.
 Parr Formulas

 The formulas are used to analyze coal to classify.

 This analysis shows the percentage of fixed carbon and volatile

matter in the true coal substance.

 The sense of fixed carbon and volatile matter is the same as in

the proximate analysis, but they relate only to that part of coal
containing no moisture or mineral matter.
 Parr Formulas
This analysis is on the “moisture-and mineral-matter-free,” or “unit-coal,” basis.

The formulas are

Dry, Mn-free, fixed carbon,

Dry, Mn-free, volatile matter, %= 100- Dry, Mn-free FC

Moist, Mn-free, heating value, Btu per lb =

Where, Mn = mineral matter,

FC = as-received fixed carbon, %
W = as-received moisture, %
S = as-received sulfur, %
A = as-received ash, %
Btu = as-received heating value, Btu per lb.
 Coal Properties:
 The moisture, ash, and sulfur contents of coal are undesirable because of
their effects on transportation charges, furnace operation, and corrosion of
metal surfaces.

 For evaluation of coal, other properties are

 Heating value
 Ash-fusion temperature, and
 Grind ability.
 The higher heating value HHV is determined either by calorimeter measurements,
which give the most accurate values, or by Dulong’s equation:

Btu per lb

 Where C, H, O, S, are from the ultimate analysis in pounds per pound of coal.

 The equation gives fairly accurate results for anthracite and the better bituminous
coals, but results for low-rank bituminous coals and lignite are in error.

 HHV of coal ranges from 11000 to about 14000 Btu per lb.
 Coal Properties:

 Lower heating values (LHV), = HHV – heat required to vaporize the mechanical
moisture and the moisture formed when a fuel burns.

 The total moisture W+9H.

 Ash-fusion temperature is found by a standerized test wherein ash samples

are heated in a furnace.

 Since the ash first softens and then melts, several values of temperature
from initial deformation to fluid temperature may be obtained.

 The value commonly given for a coal refers to the fluid temperature.

 Grind ability of a coal is shown by a number based upon some arbitrary

tests that indicate the ease with which a coal may be pulverized.

 Two methods—the Hardgrove and the U.S. Bureau of Mines ball-and mill
method- are approved by the American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM).
 Coal Classification:
 A number of methods for classifying coal have been developed. These methods as
related to power plants, are, in general, based on rank, size and source.

 Figure 1-8 on the combustible basis shows in a general way the progressive
change from peat to anthracite and graphite carbon.

 The bulk of the

coal burned in
power plants is
in the
bituminous
grouping.

Fig. 1-8 As coal ages, right to left, volatile-matter percentage

decreases, and fixed carbon percentages increases.
 Coal Classification:
 Ralston’s method of classifying coal is shown in Fig. 1-9.

 This is trilinear plot of various ranks of coal on an A-, W-, N-, and S-free basis.

 Any point shows

percentages of C,
H, and O that add
to 100.

 The plot shows

the various ranks
of coal within Fig. 1-9 Ralston’s chart of coal classification shows that the
fairly well-defined hydrogen content of coals decreases slowly from the original
areas. plant to the bituminous rank, while oxygen decreases rapidly
and carbon increases. Beyond the bituminous rank hydrogen
decreases as carbon rises.
 Coal Classification:
The most recent method is the ASTM tentative standard shown in Table 1-2, based
on physical properties, heating value, and the moisture- and mineral-matter-free
basis.
Coal Classification:
Oil Composition and Analysis:
 Petroleum is a mixture of many organic compounds, principally of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

 No attempt is made to analyze the oil for these compounds for

power plant work: instead an ultimate analysis is used.

 This shows percentage by weight of the elements present:

C = Carbon, H = Hydrogen, O = Oxygen, N = Nitrogen, S =Sulfur

 Regardless of the crude-oil source, its composition is fairly uniform

within close limits. Approximate values are

C = 83-87%, H = 11-16%, O+N = 0-7%, S = 0-4%

 Moisture and sediment contaminate all oils to some extent. These

items may be given in the analysis.
Combustion:
 The combustible elements in fuels consist of carbon and hydrogen with a small
amount of sulfur. Fuels may be solid, liquid, or gaseous before we burn them.

 Combustion involves a complicated series of chemical reactions forming

intermediate products and ending in relatively simple combustion gases.

 For power purposes we regard combustion as the rapid high-temperature

oxidation of the burnable elements that release heat energy.

Oxygen needed for the oxidation process can be calculated as follows:

Combustion:

Mass conservation requires the total weights on each side of equation to be

equal. The number of moles, however, need not be equal.
 Example 2-1:
A fuel oil has the following weight-percentage analysis:
C = 83, H = 11, O = 3, N = 2, S = 1
Determine the mole formula, and write the write the complete reaction equation
with oxygen.
Solution:
 For convenience let us deal with 100lb
of fuel.

 The moles of each element in the fuel

oil will be inversely proportional to its
molecular weight; then

If the composition of a fuel is known, eqs 2-1

can be used to calculate oxygen needs.
Combustion:
If the composition of a fuel is known, eqs 2-1 can be used to
calculate oxygen needs.

This can be reduced to the theoretical (stoichiometric) oxygen

requirement,

The symbols C, H, O, S, are weight fractions of the elements as given by an

ultimate fuel analysis.
Air for Combustion:
 Oxygen for combustion in power furnaces comes from the atmospheric air. In
furnace design we must calculate the air flow needed to support combustion.

 Figure 2-1 outlines the combustion process using air.

Air for Combustion:
Air data we must know include:
The weight of air per unit weight of fuel, the air-fuel ratio, plays an important part in
combustion calculations.
Supplying only theoretical air amounts in furnaces would not burn the fuel completely.
An amount greater than Wa, an additional amount of excess air, must be supplied.
Practical conditions of fuel type, furnace arrangements, and heat-transfer surface
arrangement determine the total amount of air needed for complete combustion.