19-206-0405ELECTRICALTECHNOLOGY AND SAFETY

Course Outcomes:
On completion of this course the student will be able to:

1. Explain the constructional features and applications of electrical machines

2. Solve numerical problems related to the operation of electrical machines
3. Explain the working principle of various electrical safety equipments
4. Summarise the safety precautions to be taken during installation of plants and equipments
• References:
• 1. Cotton, H. Electrical technology. (Seventhedition). CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. (2005).
• 2. Kothari, D.P. and Nagrath, I.J. Basic electrical engineering. (Thirdedition). Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi.(2009).
• 3. National Safety Council. Accident prevention manual for industrial operations. Chicago.(1982).
• 4. Fordham-Cooper, W.Electrical safety engineering. Elsevier by, Amsterdam.(1998).
• 5. Rao, S. and Saluja, H.L. Electrical safety, fire Engineering and safety Management, Khanna Publishers,
Delhi.(2012).
• 6. Nagarath I.J. & Kothari D.P, Electric Machines, 3rd edition, Tata McGraw Hill, (2004).
• Module I

• Construction and principle of operation of dc machines, e.m.f equation of a generator, use of interpoles. Characteristics
of shunt, series and compound generators – starting and speed control – losses and efficiency, application of motor for
industrial drive. Construction and principle of operation of single phase transformers, e.m.f equation, phasor diagrams,
equivalent circuit, regulation, losses and efficiency. Instrument transformers CT, PT.
• Module II
• Synchronous machines - types – e.m.f equation. Synchronous motor, methods of starting, applications. Induction Motor; construction and principle of
operation, equivalent circuit, torque slip characteristics, method of starting, applications.
• Circuit breakers - SF6, vacuum, air blast. Function of switch gear, circuit breakers principle of operation, arc phenomenon, arc interruption, recovery voltage
and restriking voltage. MCB and ELCB. Faults in power systems – causes – types.
• Module III
• Fuses, types and selection of fuses, advantages and disadvantages. Grounding, neutral grounding, solid grounding, resistance grounding, arc suppression coil
grounding. Equipment grounding for safety, spark gap, surge protection, lighting arrester, grounding of line structure. Effect of electric and magnetic fields,
human safety aspects, effect of current and voltage on human beings. Electrical accident-safety precaution, electric shocks and their prevention. Insulation,
FRLS insulation, continuity test. Protective relays, requirement of relay, types of protection, distance relay, differential relay, state relays and digital relay.
Transmission line protection.
• Module IV
• Safety during installation of plant and equipment. Safe sequences in installation, risk during installation. Safety during testing and commissioning. Test on
relays, protection and interlock systems for safety. Hazardous zones, classification of hazardous zones. Intrinsically safe and explosion proof electrical
apparatus. Selection of equipments in hazardous area.
• Electrical fires, hazards of static electricity. Safe procedures for electrical maintenance - Statutory requirements. Safety provisions in Indian Electricity Act &
Rules.
DC MACHINE - PARTS
• Yoke
• Another name of a yoke is the frame. The main function of the yoke in the machine is to offer
mechanical support intended for poles and protects the entire machine from moisture, dust, etc. The
materials used in the yoke are designed with cast iron, cast steel otherwise rolled steel.
• Pole and Pole Core
• The pole of the DC machine is an electromagnet and the field winding is winding among pole.
Whenever field winding is energized then the pole gives magnetic flux. The materials used for this
are cast steel, cast iron otherwise pole core. It can be built with the annealed steel laminations for
reducing the power drop because of the eddy currents.
• Pole Shoe
• Pole shoe in the DC machine is an extensive part as well as to enlarge the region of the pole.
Because of this region, flux can be spread out within the air-gap as well as extra flux can be passed
through the air space toward armature. The materials used to build pole shoe is cast iron otherwise
cast steed, and also used annealed steel lamination to reduce the loss of power because of eddy
currents.
• Field Windings
• In this, the windings are wounded in the region of pole core & named as field coil. Whenever current
is supplied through field winding than it electromagnetics the poles which generate required flux.
The material used for field windings is copper.
• Armature Core
• Armature core includes a huge number of slots within its edge. The armature conductor is located in these
slots. It provides the low-reluctance path toward the flux generated with field winding. The materials used in this
core are permeability low-reluctance materials like iron otherwise cast. The lamination is used to decrease the
loss because of the eddy current.
• Armature Winding
• The armature winding can be formed by interconnecting the armature conductor. Whenever an armature winding
is turned with the help of prime mover then the voltage, as well as magnetic flux, gets induced within it. This
winding is allied to an exterior circuit. The materials used for this winding are conducting material like copper.
• Commutator
• The main function of the commutator in the DC machine is to collect the current from the armature conductor as
well as supplies the current to the load using brushes. And also provides uni-directional torque for DC-motor.
The commutator can be built with a huge number of segments in the edge form of hard drawn copper. The
Segments in the commutator are protected from the thin mica layer.
• Brushes
• Brushes in the DC machine gather the current from the commutator and supply it to the exterior load. Brushes
wear with time to inspect frequently. The materials used in brushes are graphite otherwise carbon which is in
rectangular for
Types of DC Machines

• The excitation of the DC machine is classified into two types namely separate
excitation, as well as self-excitation. In a separate excitation type of dc
machine, the field coils are activated with a separate DC source. In the self-
excitation type of dc machine, the flow of current throughout the field-
winding is supplied with the machine. The principal kinds of DC machines
are classified into four types which include the following.
• Separately excited DC machine
• Shunt-wound/shunt machine.
• Series wound/series machine.
• Compound wound / compound machine.
V–
voltage
Eg-
generated
voltage
Eg
Classifications Of DC Machines : (DC Motors And DC
Generators)

• Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines,

the field winding is supplied from a separate power source. That
means the field winding is electrically separated from the armature
circuit.
• Self-excited DC machines: In this type, field winding and
armature winding are interconnected in various ways to achieve a wide
range of performance characteristics (for example, field winding in
series or parallel with the armature winding).In a self-excited type of
DC generator, the field winding is energized by the current produced
by themselves.
• Self-excited machines can be further classified as –Series wound dc machines – In this type,
field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. Therefore, the field winding
carries whole of the load current (armature current). That is why series winding is designed
with few turns of thick wire and the resistance is kept very low (about 0.5 Ohm).
• Shunt wound dc machines – Here, field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding. Hence, the full voltage is applied across the field winding. Shunt winding is made
with a large number of turns and the resistance is kept very high (about 100 Ohm). It takes
only small current which is less than 5% of the rated armature current.
• Compound wound dc machines – In this type, there are two sets of field winding. One is
connected in series and the other is connected in parallel with the armature winding.
Compound wound machines are further divided as -
• Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with only the armature winding
• Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with the combination of series field winding and
armature winding
Applications of DC Motors
• Series Motors
The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required and variations in speed are
possible.
For example – the series motors are used in the traction system, cranes, air compressors, Vaccum
Cleaner, Sewing machine, etc.
• Shunt Motors
The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not severe. The
various applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers,
Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.
• Compound Motors
The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is required. The
examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling
Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.
• The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control device
such in techno generators for speed sensing and in servo motors for positioning and tracking.
• BLDC MOTOR
Dc motor
Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator

• Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged
in such a manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here,
Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths

• Then,
Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore,
Induced emf of DC generator
E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Induced emf of DC generator is

Simple wave wound generator

Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for wave type of winding generator is
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/three-phase-transformer-construction-its-
working-transformer
CT and PT
CT, PT
 transformer

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cx4_7lIjoBA&list=PL-
XGvE4CWWbH-NoBnufnQBZVwy67bLEwF&index=1
Fuses
A fuse , which is used to protect circuits from over current, overload and
ensure the protection of the circuit.
Types of transformers
• Core type Transformer
• There are two main types of transformer windings – core type, and
shell-type. There are also berry type transformers.
• A core type transformer has two vertical legs or limbs with two
horizontal sections named yoke. The core is rectangular in shape with a
common magnetic circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV and LV) are placed on
both the limbs.
• Shell Type Transformer
• A shell type transformer has a central limb and two outer limbs. Both
HV, LV coils are placed on the central limb. The double magnetic
circuit is present.
Types of transformers
Step Up Transformer and Step Down Transformer
Three Phase Transformer and Single Phase Transformer
Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer and
Instrument Transformer
Power transformer

• The power transformer is a device that converts bulk

electrical power from one frequency to another.
• •Big in size.
• •Suitable for high voltage (greater than 33KV) power
transfer applications.
• •Used in power generation stations and Transmission
substation.
Losses In Transformer
Core Losses Or Iron Losses
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the
material used for the construction of core.
Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of
magnetization in the transformer core. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
Eddy current loss in transformer:
Pe(W) = Ke x Bm2 x F(hz)2 x t2 x V Watts
Copper Loss In Transformer
Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss
for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2.
Vo ltag e Trans fo rmatio n Ratio (K)
As derived above,

Where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

 If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up

transformer.
 If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down
transformer
 EMF EQUATION of transformer
EMF Equatio n Of The Trans form e r
Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0.
It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 sec (where,
As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φ m from 0.
It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 sec (where,
T is time period of the sin wave of the supply = 1/f).
Therefore,

average rate of change of flux = Φ

m /(T/4) = Φ
m /(1/4f)
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = 4f Φ m ....... (Wb/s).
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn

Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........(Volts).

Now, we know, Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per turn.

As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm.

RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E 1) = RMS value of emf per
turn X Number of turns in primary winding

E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ............................. eq 1
Emf equation
E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2

from the above equations 1 and 2,

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf / number of
turns is same for both primary and secondary winding.

For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
• N1=400
• N2=1000
• A=60
• 50Hz
• 520V
• E2, ,
Efficiency Of Transformer
Max efficiency

efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).

Lead and lag
 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantities

Consider an alternating current represented by the equation i = Im sin ωt. Take a line OP
to represent to scale the maximum value Im. Imagine the line OP (or **phasor, as it is
called) to be rotating in anticlockwise direction at an angular velocity ω rad/sec about
the point O
w
Phasor diagram of transformer NO LOAD
What is the Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer?

• The equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer is a simplified circuit

in which the impedance, resistance and leakage reactance of the
transformer can be more easily calculated.
• From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,
E2 / = N2 / N1 = K=

Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary.

Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2. ............where = N1/N2.
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
equating real and imaginary parts,
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of
transformer with secondary parameters referred to the
primary.
• The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing
components Iμ) and non induction resistance R0 (taking working component Iw) which
are connected into parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained by
subtracting I1Z1 from V1. The value of R0 and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 /
Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ.
TRANSFORMER TESTS
• These two transformer tests are performed to find the
parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer and losses of
the transformer. Open circuit test and short circuit test
on transformer are very economical and convenient
because they are performed without actually loading of the
transformer.
Oc test

230 V
110
 Let,
•W – wattmeter reading
0

•V – voltmeter reading
1

•I – ammeter reading
0

Then the iron loss of the transformer P = W and

i 0
No-load parameters are given below:
Equivalent exciting resistance is

Equivalent exciting reactance is

The no-load power factor is

Working component I is
w

Putting the value of W y

0
YOU will get the value of the working component as

Magnetizing component is
calculation of open-circuit test
Let,

W0 – wattmeter reading
V1 – voltmeter reading
I0 – ammeter reading
Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and
OC-SC-EQ1
Transformer sc test

Wsc = Full load copper losses

• Short Circuit Test
• The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention
parameter of the transformer.
• It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is
used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.
• The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are
known by the short circuit test.
Calculation of Short Circuit Test
Let,
•W – Wattmeter reading
c

•V – voltmeter reading
2sc

•I – ammeter reading
2sc

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is

Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by

The equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at

An autotransformer (or auto transformer) is a type of
electrical transformer with only one winding. The “auto”
prefix refers to the single coil acting alone (Greek for
“self”) – not to any automatic mechanism.
1.An auto transformer has higher efficiency than two winding
transformer. This is because of less ohmic loss and core loss due
to reduction of transformer material.
2.Auto transformer has better voltage regulation as voltage drop
in resistance and reactance of the single winding is less.
3. The saving of cost is appreciable when the ratio of transformer
is low, that is lower than 2. Thus auto transformer is smaller in
size and cheaper.
Starting of DC Motors:

• At the time of Starting of DC Motors (n = 0), the induced emf of a

motor is zero such that the current drawn from rated voltage supply
would be
• Ia=
• For several reasons mentioned below such a large current cannot be allowed to
flow in a motor even for the short starting period.
• It would cause intolerably heavy sparking at the brushes which may destroy
the commutator and brush-gear.
• Sudden development of large torque causes mechanical shock to the shaft,
reducing its life.
• Such heavy current cannot be generally permitted to be drawn from the
source of supply.