Hazırladı:Əli İsmayıllı

Mövzu:Insan məlumatlarının emalı

Fakültə:Mexanika (Ingils dili)

Xoş seyirlər
Human Information Processing
5.1 INTRODUCTION
To emphasize the significance of human
information processing, we'll begin by
introducing Hick's law and a model of human
information processing. Following that, we'll
present decision-making models based on
cognitive psychology principles or
observations of real-world decision-making in
work settings.
5.2 EXAMPLE: THE TROUBLE WITH INFORMATION
1
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 3 4
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

2 34
Excessive Controls: Many interfaces have too many
controls, not all of which are necessary.
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 3 4
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 34
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 34
Complex Input: Instead of simply turning
a dial, users are often required to input
information manually.
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 3 4
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 34
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 4
Multiple Steps:Interfaces often
involve multiple contingent actions,
making tasks less automatic.
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 3 4
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 3
Deceptive Functions: Some functions can be
misleading, like using a generic "beverage"
setting that doesn't account for specific
preferences.
The main issues with interface design in computing
systems and consumer products are:

1 2 3 4
5.3 HUMAN REACTION TIME AND HICK’S LAW
Hick's law is a common principle used in Human Factors
Engineering (HFE) to understand and measure human
reaction time (RT) in response to decision-making
scenarios. It states that RT is a function of the number of
choices or alternatives in a decision and can be
represented by the equation:

RT = a + b * log2(N)
•RT is the reaction time.
•N is the number of alternatives or choices.
•'a' and 'b' are constants.
This law suggests that as the number of alternatives increases, the
reaction time also increases, indicating that complex decisions with more
alternatives take longer to process.
In laboratory experiments, Hick's law can be verified using a setup with lights and switches. For
example:
1
2
3
With 8 lights (corresponding to 3 bits of information uncertainty), the
reaction time is 1.4 seconds.

2
3
1
2
3
 1
With 4 lights (2 bits of information), the reaction time is 0.9 seconds.

3
1
2
3
 1
2
With 2 lights (1 bit of information), the reaction time is 0.4 seconds.
1
2
3
These results show a linear
relationship between the number of
bits of information (or alternatives)
and reaction time, which is a valuable
finding for designing interfaces and
decision-making processes. It allows
designers to predict information
processing time accurately.
For instance, in interface design, this principle can be used
to optimize the presentation of menu items with varying
information content to minimize search time, ensuring a
more user-friendly and efficient system. This understanding
of Hick's law helps in making decisions easier, quicker, and
more reliable for users.
5.4 INFORMATION THEORY
Information theory, introduced by Shannon and Weaver in 1949, quantifies the
amount of information in a stimulus based on its probability of occurrence, often
referred to as information uncertainty or entropy. Here are the key points:
ulating
tion in Bits
mple
mation as
rtainty
Information as Uncertainty

Information is seen as a measure of

uncertainty or entropy. Events with
greater uncertainty carry more
information, while those with high
probability and little uncertainty carry
less.
ulating
tion in Bits
mation as
rtainty
mple
 mation as

ulating
tion in Bits
rtainty
Example

A statement like "The sun rose this morning"

carries minimal information because it is
highly probable and expected (p=1.0). In
contrast, a statement like "There was an
earthquake in Paris" conveys a lot of
information because it's unlikely (low
probability).
ulating
tion in Bits
mation as
rtainty
mple
 xample

mation as
rtainty
Information in Bits
Calculating

Shannon and Weaver's model quantifies information in bits. If there are N

equally likely events (each with a probability of p=1/N), the amount of
information (Hs) in these events can be calculated as:

Hs = log2(N)

Alternatively, you can calculate it as:

Hs = log2(1/p)

This formula provides the number of bits needed to represent the information
content of an event.
mation as
rtainty
xample
culating
ation in Bits
ulating
tion in Bits
mple
mation as
rtainty
5.5 HUMAN INFORMATION
PROCESSING
Human Information Processing Model: The text introduces the human information processing
model, which consists of three main processors: perceptual, cognitive, and motor processors.

Processing Time: It mentions the average processing times for these three processors: 100 ms
for perception, 70 ms for cognition, and 70 ms for action. However, the processing time can
vary depending on the complexity of the task.

Long-Term Memory (LTM): The text describes long-term memory as having almost unlimited
storage capacity. It emphasizes that information in LTM is typically stored in the form of
concepts.

Working Memory (WM): WM, also known as short-term memory, is

discussed as the memory used when performing tasks. It has a relatively short
half-time (HT) of 7 seconds, indicating that information fades quickly from
working memory.

Chunking: The concept of chunking is introduced, which refers to grouping

information into meaningful units. Skilled individuals can create larger chunks,
making them more efficient at processing and remembering information .

Chess Players and Chunking: The text cites studies on chess players, demonstrating how experts
can chunk information to their advantage in memorizing chess positions.
Memory Improvement through Practice: An experiment is mentioned where an
individual significantly improved their memory span through extensive practice, using
chunking and mnemonic associations.

Acoustic and Visual Information in Working Memory: Working memory is described

as primarily storing acoustic or visual information, depending on the task.

Decay of Information: Information in working memory decays over time, and

the rate of decay depends on the number of chunks of information being stored.

Practical Applications: The text briefly mentions practical

applications of these concepts, such as the design of postal codes,
telephone numbers, and the use of symbols and labels to simplify
information processing.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESSORS
1 Perception and Data Banks:

• Information processing begins with perception, where data from the eyes
and ears is collected.
• Two data banks are involved: the visual image store and the auditory
image store.
• Visual image store retains information for a short period (HT of 200 ms),
and it contains veridical images of the real world.
• Attention acts like a searchlight, allowing focus on specific objects while
ignoring others temporarily.
• Certain features in the environment, such as large or dynamic elements,
can naturally draw our attention.
2 Iconic Memory (Visual Image Store):

• Iconic memory is another term for the visual image

store.
• It has a limited capacity, approximately storing 17
letters.
• Laboratory experiments, often conducted in
psychology departments, demonstrate its capacity by
flashing images briefly on a screen.
3 Echoic Memory (Auditory Image Store):

• Echoic memory, also called the auditory image store,

functions similarly to iconic memory.
• It stores sound impressions and has a longer half-time
(HT) of about 1500 ms.
• This longer HT allows us to comprehend sentences as
a whole rather than isolated words.
4 Information Processing Chain:

• The entire information processing chain, from perceptual

input to cognition (decision-making) to action (motor
output), is outlined in the figure.
5 Predicting Processing Time:

•For routine tasks, it is possible to estimate the time taken for each element of
the processing chain.

•A simple task, like moving a cursor between two screen targets, takes
approximately 240 ms, broken down into perceptual (100 ms), decision-making
(70 ms), and motor (70 ms) processing stages.

•Complex tasks may require more time for perceptual and cognitive processing,
but once a decision is made, motor responses are usually quick.
In summary, the text explains how information is processed, stored briefly in
iconic and echoic memory, and utilized for decision-making and action. It also
highlights how attention, features in the environment, and memory capacities
play roles in this information processing cycle.
Was this response better or worse?
5.6 HEURISTICS ARE USED FOR COPING
WITH THE LIMITATIONS OF THE WORKING
MEMORY
Heuristics for Coping with Working Memory Limitations:

• Working Memory (WM) has a limited capacity, typically 7±2

chunks, which can be a limitation in processing information.

• In situations where information processing demand exceeds the

WM's capacity, people often use heuristics or rules of thumb to
simplify decisions and reduce the burden on working memory.
As If Heuristic

Individuals often treat all information as if it

were equally valuable, even though some
information may be more important than others.

Ignoring Arithmetic
Calculations

Shortcuts, like rounding numbers, are used to

simplify calculations, preserving working
memory capacity.
Availability Heuristic

High probability events are favored over low

probability events when making decisions. For
example, a mechanic may focus on a common
issue when diagnosing a car problem.

Confirmation Bias

People tend to seek confirming information for their

initial judgments and downplay conflicting information.
5.7 FROM FORMAL DECISION MAKING TO NATURALISTIC
DECISION MAKING
 Classical School of Decision Making
Classical School of Decision Making

TheThe classicalapproach
classical approachemphasizes
emphasizesfinding
findingoptimal
optimalsolutions
solutionsbased
basedononstable
stablegoals,
goals,values,
values,and
and
environmental
environmental factors.
factors.
Decision-makersare
Decision-makers areexpected
expected to to choose
choose alternatives
alternatives that
that maximize
maximize thethe expected
expected value,
value,
calculated as the sum of the probability and value of different decision alternatives.
calculated as the sum of the probability and value of different decision alternatives.
The classical approach sets the expected value as the gold standard for good decision-making.
The classicalthat
It assumes approach sets the decision
the optimum expectedconsistently
value as theproduces
gold standard for good value
the maximum decision-making.
when repeated
It many
assumes that the optimum decision consistently produces the maximum value when repeated
times.
many times.in recent years, there has been a shift away from formal decision-making to a more
However,
However, in recent
opportunistic years, there
approach, has been
recognizing a shift
that away from
alternatives areformal decision-making
difficult to a an
to formulate, and more
optimal
solution mayapproach,
opportunistic not always exist.
recognizing that alternatives are difficult to formulate, and an optimal
Decision-makers
solution may embrace
may not always exist. "satisficing" choices, seeking decisions that are good enough
rather than perfect.
Decision-makers may embrace "satisficing" choices, seeking decisions that are good enough
rather than perfect.cc
5.8 RASMUSSEN’S MODEL
This section discusses Jens Rasmussen's model of naturalistic decision-making,
which distinguishes between three levels of decision-making and task
performance

1. Skill-Based Decision Making: 2. Rule-Based Decision Making:

Occurs in very familiar situations where tasks
are automatic and require no formal
decisions.
The operator performs the task effortlessly
and without the need for conscious decision-
making.
Examples include tasks that are so routine
that they can be performed almost
unconsciously.
Occurs in situations where there are clear, well-
understood rules for decision-making.
Decision-makers follow specific rules or procedures
to make decisions.
Rules are typically based on "if-then" statements,
where specific actions are taken in response to
predefined situations.
Rule-based decisions are effective and efficient for
handling various conditions.
This section discusses Jens Rasmussen's model of naturalistic decision-making,
which distinguishes between three levels of decision-making and task
performance

3. Knowledge-Based Decision Making:

Occurs in complex environments and for unfamiliar tasks.
Decision-makers may need to deeply analyze the purpose and goals of the task.
It involves understanding the broader context, goals, and priorities before making
decisions.
In complex scenarios, operators may need to identify root causes, set priorities, and
consider company policies.
Knowledge-based tasks require a deeper level of thinking and analysis.
The transition from knowledge-based to rule-based and rule-based to skill-based decision-
making often occurs with training and experience. For example, experienced individuals
can turn knowledge-based tasks into rule-based tasks by developing effective decision
rules. Pilot training, for instance, focuses on developing automatic responses to complex
scenarios.

Rasmussen's model is focused on classifying tasks based on their nature and

complexity rather than delving into the cognitive processes of decision-making. It
emphasizes the importance of understanding task requirements and the operator's skill
level for task redesign and engineering improvements.
5.9 NORMAN’S GULFS OF EXECUTION AND
EVALUATION
Norman's model focuses on the interactions between a user and an interface, highlighting
that for a user to effectively interact with a system, they must be able to:

1. Formulate their goal.

2. Formulate their intention.
3. Specify their action.
4. Execute the action.
5. Perceive the system state.
6. Interpret the system state.
7. Evaluate the outcome.
In designing an information system, the interface should be carefully designed to facilitate
these actions by ensuring

• Visibility of the system state and action

alternatives.
• A good conceptual model with a consistent
system image.
• Useful mappings that reveal relationships
between stages.
• Continuous feedback on the user's actions.
5.10 RECOGNITION-PRIMED
DECISION MAKING
Recognition and Routine Action: In this situation, operators
quickly recognize a familiar situation and respond as they have
done in similar past situations. It involves well-established
routines.

Modified Situation: Sometimes, the current situation may deviate slightly

from past situations. In such cases, the operator mentally simulates the
potential outcomes of following the usual pattern of action. After this mental
simulation, they may decide to proceed with the standard routine action or
consider an alternative.

Simulation and Change: In this scenario, the operator goes

through the mental simulation of the standard action but realizes
that the routine action is no longer suitable. This may prompt
them to explore alternative courses of action.
5.11 SITUATION
AWARENESS
Perception: This involves the individual's ability to
perceive and gather information about the elements
present in the current situation. For instance, a
driver perceives the surrounding traffic, road
conditions, and pedestrians.

Comprehension: After perceiving the elements, the individual

must comprehend the meaning and significance of these elements
in the context of the situation. In the example of a driver,
comprehension might involve understanding that children playing
near the road pose a potential hazard.

Projection: Projection refers to the ability to anticipate or

project the future status of the elements based on the
gathered information and comprehension. For a driver, this
could mean predicting that the children playing near the road
might suddenly run onto the street to retrieve a ball.
5.12 THE SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY
PARADIGM
Signal and Noise: In SDT, there are two
possible states of the world: either there is a
signal (e.g., the presence of a target) or there
is no signal (e.g., background noise).
Individuals must make decisions based on
the available information to determine
whether a signal is present or not.
 Operator Experience: Operator experience can significantly affect
sensitivity (d′). Experienced individuals often have higher d′ values,
meaning they are better at distinguishing signals from noise. Training
and expertise can lead to improved decision-making accuracy.

Applications: SDT is used in various real-world applications, such as

medical diagnosis (e.g., radiologists identifying tumors), quality
control (setting criteria for product acceptance), security screening
(identifying concealed weapons), and more. It helps determine the
appropriate criteria for making decisions in situations where there may
be costs associated with errors.
Trade-offs: SDT involves trade-offs between minimizing different
types of errors. Adjusting the decision criterion can impact the
rates of false alarms and misses. In some cases, stringent criteria
may lead to fewer false alarms but more misses, while lenient
criteria may reduce misses but increase false alarms.

Sensitivity and Equipment Evaluation: Sensitivity (d′) can be

used to evaluate the performance of equipment used in diagnostic
tasks. For example, comparing the sensitivity of different medical
imaging techniques can help assess their accuracy in detecting
specific conditions.
 5.13 VIGILANCE AND
SUSTAINED ATTENTION
1. Show examples of targets on the screen to increase
mental availability.

2.Increase the salience of the target, for example, by

making it larger or more prominent.

3.Reduce social isolation among operators to make

the task more engaging.

4.Introduce irrelevant tasks or activities to increase

physiological activation levels, such as playing games
during downtime.
5.Provide trial testing with feedback on performance metrics
like hits, correct rejections, false alarms, and misses.

6.Schedule work and rest periods strategically to combat

fatigue. For example, using a rotating job assignment where
operators spend limited time in front of the screen.

7.Present the signal in multiple modes or channels

simultaneously, such as both visual and auditory cues. This is
common in sonar operations.

8.Consider the use of stimulants like coffee to help

operators stay alert.
İzlədiyiniz üçün
təşəkkürlər