Maxwell’s equations

Name of the law Differential form Integral form Significance

Gauss law in ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌 The net outward electric flux

electrostatics න 𝜌. 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑞 through a surface enclosed in a
𝑉
volume V is equal to the net
charge contained in that
volume

Gauss law in ∇. 𝐵 = 0 The net outward magnetic flux

magnetostatics න 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 = 0 through any closed curve is
𝑆
equal to zero

Faraday’s law 𝜕𝐵 𝜕 The emf around a closed path is

∇×𝐸 =− න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − න 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑠 equal to the negative change of
𝐶
magnetic flux linked with the
path
Ampere’s law 𝜕𝐷 The mmf around a closed path
∇×𝐻 =𝐽+ 𝜕𝐷
𝜕𝑡 ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = න ൬
𝐽+ ൰. 𝑑𝑆 is equal to the conduction
𝑠 𝜕𝑡 current +the displacement
𝐶
current through any surface
bounded by a path.
Stoke's theorem
Derivation of first equation
Derivation of second equation
Derivation of third equation
Derivation of fourth equation
Hysteresis
 Applications
(i) Permanent magnets
The ideal material for making permanent magnets should possess high retentivity (residual
magnetism) and high coercivity so that the magnetisation lasts for a longer time. Examples of such
substances are steel and alnico (an alloy of Al, Ni and Co).
(ii) Electromagnets
Material used for making an electro-magnet has to undergo cyclic changes. Therefore, the ideal
material for making an electromagnet has to be one which has the least hysteresis loss. Moreover,
the material should attain high values of magnetic induction B at low values of magnetising field H.
Soft iron is preferred for making electromagnets as it has a thin hysteresis loop (Fig.) [small area,
therefore less hysteresis loss] and low retentivity. It attains high values of B at low values of
magnetising field H.
(iii) Core of the transformer
A material used for making transformer core and choke is subjected to cyclic changes very rapidly.
Also, the material must have a large value of magnetic induction B. Therefore, soft iron that has
thin and tall hysteresis loop is preferred. Some alloys with low hysteresis loss are: radio-metals,
pern-alloy and mumetal.
(iv) Magnetic tapes and memory store
Magnetisation of a magnet depends not only on the magnetising field but also on the cycle of
magnetisation it has undergone. Thus, the value of magnetisation of the specimen is a record of
the cycles of magnetisation it has undergone. Therefore, such a system can act as a device for
storing memory.
Ferro magnetic materials are used for coating magnetic tapes in a cassette player and for building
a memory store in a modern computer. Examples : Ferrites (Fe, Fe2O, MnFe2O4 etc.).