Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 We are now going to apply the methods of Gauss’s law to a
slightly different type of problem: a surface without symmetry.
 We have to choose such a very small closed surface that D is
almost constant over the surface, and the small change in D
may be adequately represented by using the first two terms of
the Taylor’s-series expansion for D.
 The result will become more nearly correct as the volume
enclosed by the Gaussian surface decreases. We intend
eventually to allow this volume to approach zero.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/1

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Taylor’s Series Expansion

f ( x0  x)  f ( x)
f ( x0 )

x0 x  x0  x

A point near x0
f ( x)  f ( x0  x)
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) f n
( x0 )
f ( x)  f ( x0 )  x  (x)   
2
( x ) n
1! 2! n!

Only the linear terms are

used for the linearization

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 Consider any point P, located by a
rectangular coordinate system.
 The value of D at the point P may be
expressed in rectangular components:
D0  Dx 0a x  Dy 0 a y  Dz 0 a z

 We now choose as our closed surface,

the small rectangular box, centered at P,
having sides of lengths Δx, Δy, and Δz,
and apply Gauss’s law:
 D  dS  Q
S

 D  dS  
S front

back
 
left right
 
top bottom

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 We will now consider the front surface
in detail.
 The surface element is very small, thus
D is essentially constant over this
surface (a portion of the entire closed
surface):

front
 Dfront  S front
 Dfront  yz a x
 Dx ,front yz
 The front face is at a distance of Δx/2 from P, and therefore:
x
Dx ,front  Dx 0   rate of change of Dx with x
2
x Dx
 Dx 0 
2 x

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/4

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 We have now, for front surface:
 x Dx 
front   Dx 0  2 x  yz
 In the same way, the integral over the back surface can be
found as:
back
 Dback  S back
 Dback  (yz a x )
  Dx ,back yz

x Dx
Dx ,back  Dx 0 
2 x
 x Dx 
back  x 0 2 x  yz
  D 

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/5

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 If we combine the two integrals over the front and back surface,
we have:
Dx

front
  back

x
xyz

 Repeating the same process to the remaining surfaces, we find:

Dy
right
  left

y
yxz

Dz
top
 
bottom

z
 z x  y

 These results may be collected to yield:

 Dx Dy Dz 
 S D  dS   x  y  z  xyz
 Dx Dy Dz 
 S D  dS  Q   x  y  z  v
President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/6
 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 The previous equation is an approximation, which becomes
better as Δv becomes smaller, and in the following section the
volume Δv will be let to approach zero.
 For the moment, we have applied Gauss’s law to the closed
surface surrounding the volume element Δv.
 The result is the approximation stating that:

 Dx Dy Dz 

Charge enclosed in volume v       v
 x y z 

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/7

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 Example
Let D = y2z3 ax + 2xyz3 ay + 3xy2z2 az nC/m2 in free space.
(a) Find the total electric flux passing through the surface x = 3,
0 ≤ y ≤ 2, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 in a direction away from the origin. (b) Find
|E| at P(3,2,1). (c) Find an approximate value for the total
charge contained in an incremental sphere having a radius of 2
mm centered at P(3,2,1).

(a) ψ  S DS  dS
 x z a z    dydz a x 
1 2
  y 2 3
z a  2 xyz 3
a y  3 xy 2 2
z 0 y 0 x 3
1 2
  y 2 z 3dydz
0 0
2 1 1
 y1
3
3
z 4
0 4 0

 23 nC

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/8

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

(b) D = y 2 z 3a x  2 xyz 3a y  3xy 2 z 2a z
D P = (2) 2 (1)3 a x  2(3)(2)(1)3 a y  3(3)(2) 2 (1) 2 a z
= 4a x  12a y  36a z nC m 2

D P = DP  (4) 2  (12) 2  (36) 2

 38.158 nC m 2

DP
EP 
0
38.158 nC m 2

8.854  1012
 4.31 kV m

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/9

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

(c) Q   Dx  Dy  Dz  v
 
 x y z 
 Dx Dy Dz 
QP      v
 x y z  P

  0  2 xz 3  6 xy 2 z  x 3 nC m3  43  (2 103 )3 m3
y 2
z 1

  0  2(3)(1)3  6(3)(2) 2 (1)   43  (2 103 )3 nC

 2.61 1015 C

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/10

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Divergence
 We shall now obtain an exact relationship, by allowing the
volume element Δv to shrink to zero.
 Dx Dy Dz 
 
 D  dS  Q
 
S

 x y z  v v


 Dx Dy Dz 
 

 D  dS Q
   lim  lim
S

 x y z  v  0 v v 0 v

 The last term is the volume charge density ρv, so that:

 Dx Dy Dz 
 

 D  dS
 v
   lim
S

 x y z  v  0 v

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/11

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Divergence
 Let us no consider one information that can be obtained from
the last equation:
 Dx Dy Dz 
 

 D  dS
   lim
S

 x y z  v 0 v

 This equation is valid not only for electric flux density D, but
also to any vector field A to find the surface integral for a small
closed surface.
 Ax Ay Az 
 

 A  dS
   lim
S

 x y z  v 0 v

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/12

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Divergence
 This operation received a descriptive name, divergence. The
divergence of A is defined as:

Divergence of A  div A  lim

 S
A  dS
v  0 v
“The divergence of the vector flux density A is the
outflow of flux from a small closed surface per unit
volume as the volume shrinks to zero.”

 A positive divergence of a vector quantity indicates a source of

that vector quantity at that point.
 Similarly, a negative divergence indicates a sink.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/13

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Divergence
Dx Dy Dz
div D    Rectangular
x y z

1  1 D Dz
div D  (  D )   Cylindrical
    z

1  2 1  1 D
div D  2 (r Dr )  (sin  D )  Spherical
r r r sin   r sin  

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/14

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Divergence
 Example
If D = e–xsiny ax – e–x cosy ay + 2z az, find div D at the origin and
P(1,2,3).

Dx Dy Dz

div D     e  x sin y  e  x sin y  2 2
x y z

Regardless of location the divergence of D equals 2 C/m3.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/15

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

Maxwell’s First Equation (Electrostatics)

 We may now rewrite the expressions developed until now:

div D  lim

 D  dS
S

v  0 v
Dx DDy
div D    z
x y z

Maxwell’s First Equation

div D   v Point Form of Gauss’s Law

 This first of Maxwell’s four equations applies to electrostatics

and steady magnetic field.
 Physically it states that the electric flux per unit volume leaving
a vanishingly small volume unit is exactly equal to the volume
charge density there.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/16

 1. Electric Charges: These are like tiny particles that can be either positive (like tiny little pluses) or negative
(like tiny little minuses). Just like how static electricity can make your hair stick to a balloon, these charges
create an invisible force field around them.
2. Electric Field: This invisible force field created by the charges is what we call the electric field. It's a bit like
the field of force you feel when you try to push two magnets together.
3. Gauss's Law for Electricity: Maxwell's first equation, or Gauss's law, basically says that if you draw an
imaginary bubble (a closed surface) around these charges, the strength of the electric field this bubble
captures is directly related to the amount of charge inside it.
1. If there's a lot of charge inside the bubble, the electric field is strong.
2. If there's no charge inside the bubble, the electric field is zero.
4. Visualizing the Concept: Imagine putting a bunch of static-charged balloons inside a larger bubble. The
more balloons you put in, the stronger the static force you'd feel on the surface of the big bubble.
In technical terms, the equation states that the total electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space. But in simpler terms, it's just a way to relate the amount of
electric charge in a space to the electric field it produces around it.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/17

 Explanation for kids

Imagine you have a bunch of invisible magic arrows floating all around you. These arrows
are called "electric fields." They aren't real arrows, but they point in the direction that a
tiny charged particle, like a speck of dust, would move if it was in the field.
Now, let's think about balloons. Some of these balloons have superpowers – they can
create these invisible magic arrows around them. These are special balloons with
something called "electric charge." A balloon with a positive charge shoots the arrows out,
and a balloon with a negative charge sucks the arrows in.
Maxwell's first equation is like a rule for these magic arrows and superpower balloons.
Here's the rule:
• If you put one of these superpower balloons inside a big, invisible bubble (like a soap
bubble you can't see), the number of arrows either coming out of or going into the
bubble tells you how strong the superpower of the balloon is.
• If the balloon has a really strong superpower (a lot of charge), there will be lots of
arrows pointing out if it's positive, or lots pointing in if it's negative.
• If there's no balloon in the bubble, then there are no arrows coming out or going in.
So, Maxwell's first equation is a way to understand how these invisible magic arrows (the
electric field) are related to the superpower balloons (electric charges). If there are more
charges, there are more arrows; if there are no charges, there are no arrows. It's like a
game where the balloons and the arrows always have to follow this rule!

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/18

 1. The Bubble: This represents an imaginary enclosed space. It's like
drawing an invisible line around a certain area in space, forming a shape
like a sphere or any other closed shape. This is the space where we are
going to look at the electric field and the charges.
2. The Balloon (Superpower Charge) Inside the Bubble: Inside this
bubble, imagine there is a balloon (or maybe more than one). This
balloon represents an electric charge. The charge could be positive (like
a balloon that pushes things away) or negative (like a balloon that pulls
things towards it).
3. The Magic Arrows (Electric Field): These arrows show the direction
and strength of the electric field created by the balloon (charge). If the
balloon is positive, the arrows point away from it, and if it's negative,
they point towards it.
4. Maxwell's First Equation: What this rule tells us is that if you count
how many arrows are either leaving or entering the bubble, it can tell
you how strong the superpower (charge) of the balloon is inside the
bubble.
So, in this analogy, there's only one enclosed space (the bubble) we are
considering, and the balloon (charge) is inside it. The arrows (electric field)
are related to how strong the charge of the balloon is.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/19

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 Divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar, just
like the dot product.
 We define the del operator Ñ as a vector operator:
  
 ax  a y  az
x y z

 Then, treating the del operator as an ordinary vector, we can

write:
    
  D   a x  a y  a z   ( Dx a x  D y a y  D z a z )
 x y z 
Dx Dy Dz
D   
x y z
Dx Dy Dz
div D =   D =  
x y z

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/20

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 The Ñ operator does not have a specific form in other
coordinate systems than rectangular coordinate system.
 Nevertheless,
1  1 D Dz
D  (  D )   Cylindrical
    z

1  2 1  1 D
D  2 (r Dr )  (sin  D )  Spherical
r r r sin   r sin  

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/21

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 We shall now give name to a theorem that we actually have
obtained, the Divergence Theorem:
 D  dS  Q  
S vol
v dv     Ddv
vol

 The first and last terms constitute the divergence theorem:

 D  dS  
S vol
  D dv

“The integral of the normal

component of any vector field
over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of
this vector field throughout the
volume enclosed by the closed
surface.”

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/22

 The divergence theorem is a mathematical statement about how
the behavior of a fluid, or any substance that flows, relates to
what happens inside an area. Imagine you have a bubble and
inside this bubble, there is air moving around. The divergence
theorem tells us that if we want to know how much air is pushing
out of the bubble's surface, we can find out by adding up all the
little pushes happening inside the bubble. In other words, it links
the air flow on the inside with the air flow that is coming out of
the surface. It's like saying if you have a lot of little fans inside a
room (the volume), the total air they blow against the walls (the
surface) is the same as the sum of all the air they are blowing
inside the room.

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/23

 1. Integral: This is like adding up a bunch of tiny quantities to get a total
amount. It's the math version of saying, "If I have a little bit here, a
little bit there, how much do I have altogether?"
2. Normal Component: "Normal" in this context means perpendicular
(at a right angle) to the surface. So if we're talking about wind
blowing against a sail, the normal component would be the part of the
wind that's hitting the sail straight on, not the part that's glancing off to
the side.
3. Vector Field: This is a fancy way of describing something that has
both a magnitude (how strong it is) and a direction (which way it's
going) at every point in space. For example, wind could be
represented as a vector field, with each vector arrow showing the
wind's speed and direction at that point.
4. Closed Surface: Think of this as a shape that completely encloses a
space, like a bubble or a ball. There are no openings; it's completely
sealed off from the outside.
Putting it all together: If you measure how strongly something is pushing
(like wind, water, or even magnetic force) straight out (or straight in) at
every tiny piece of the surface of an object, and add all those
measurements up, that total is what we're talking about when we say "the
integral of the normal component over a closed surface."

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/24

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 Example
Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the field
D = 2xy ax + x2 ay C/m2 and the rectangular parallelepiped
formed by the planes x = 0 and 1, y = 0 and 2, and z = 0 and 3.

 D  dS  
S vol
  D dv Divergence Theorem
3 2 3 2
 D
S
S  dS  
0  (D) 0 x 0  (  dydz a x )    (D)
0 0 x 1  ( dydz a x )
3 1 3 1
   (D) y 0  (dxdz a y )    (D) y 2  (dxdz a y )
0 0 0 0

But ( Dx ) x 0  0, ( Dy ) y 0  ( Dy ) y 2
3 2 3 2
 D S  dS    ( Dx ) x 1 dydz    2 ydydz  12 C
S 0 0 0 0

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/25

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 
D = (2 xy )  ( x 2 )  2 y
x y
3 2 1
vol
  D dv  
z 0  
y 0 x 0
(2 y )dxdydz
1 2 2 3
 x0 y z0
0

 12 C

  D  dS     D dv  12 C
S vol

President University Erwin Sitompul EEM 4/26