EE3301 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

UNIT-1
ELECTROSTATICS-I

1. Divergence theorem:
The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field over a volume is equal to the surface
integral of normal component of this vector over the surface bounding the volume.

∭ ∇. 𝐴 𝑑𝑣 = ∯ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠

Proof:
The divergence of any vector A is given by
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∇. 𝐴 = +𝜕𝑦+ 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥

Take volume integral on both sides,

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∭ ∇. 𝐴 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ [ 𝜕𝑥𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧
]dx dy dz ... dv= dxdydz
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴𝑥
∭ [ 𝜕𝑥𝑥 ] dx dy dz = ∬ [∫ 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥]dy dz
𝑥2 𝜕𝐴𝑥
But ∫𝑥1 𝑑𝑥 = Ax2-Ax1 = Ax
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝐴𝑥
Then ∭ [ 𝜕𝑥 ] dx dy dz = ∬[𝐴𝑥]dy dz=∬[𝐴𝑥]dsx

Where dy dz = dsx = x axis component of surface area ds

Similarly the following integrals becomes
𝜕𝐴𝑦
∭ [ 𝜕𝑦 ] dx dy dz = ∬[Ay]dsx
𝜕𝐴
∭ [ 𝜕𝑧𝑧 ] dx dy dz = ∬[Az]dsz
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
Then ∭ ∇. 𝐴 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ [ 𝜕𝑥𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + ] dx dy dz
𝜕𝑧

= ∬(Ax dsx + Ay dsy + Az dsz)

= ∬ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠
Therefore ∭ ∇. 𝐴 𝑑𝑣 = ∯ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠
Hence proved.
2. Stoke's theorem
The line integral of a vector around a closed path is equal to the surface integral of the
normal component of its curl over any closed surface.
 ∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇ 𝑥 𝐻 𝑑𝑠

Proof:
Consider an arbitrary surface. This is broken up into incremental surfaces of area Δs as shown
in figure.

If H is any field vector. Then by definition of the curl to one of these incremental surfaces.
∮ 𝑯.𝒅𝒍 ∆𝒔
=(𝜵𝒙 𝑯)aN
∆𝒔

Where N indicates normal to the surface and dl ∆𝑠 indicates that the closed path of an
incremental area ∆𝑠.
The curl of H normal to the surface can be written as
∮ 𝑯.𝒅𝒍 ∆𝒔
= (𝜵𝒙 𝑯). aN
∆𝒔

or
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 ∆𝑠 = (∇𝑥 𝐻). aN∆𝑠
= (∇𝑥 𝐻). ∆𝑠
Where aN is a unit vector normal to ∆𝑠.
The closed integral for whole surface S is given by the surface integral of the normal component
of curl H.

∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇ 𝑥 𝐻 . 𝑑𝑠

3. Electric field intensity due to infinite line charge.

 Consider a uniformly charged line of length L whose leaner charge density is ρl c/m. consider a
small element dl at a distance ‘l’ from one end of the charged line as shown in figure. Let P be the
any point at a distance ‘r’ from the element dl.
The electric field at point P due to the charge element ρl dl is given by
𝝆𝒍 𝒅𝒍
dE= 4𝜋𝜀𝑟2

The x and y component of electric field dE are given by

dEx= dE sinθ
dEy = dE cosθ
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙
then dEx= sinθ
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2

From the figure x-l = h cotθ

-dl = - hcosec2θ.dθ
𝒉
and = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
𝑟

r= h cosec θ
𝝆𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
dEx= 4𝜋𝜀ℎ

substituting the values of dl and r in dEx equation

𝝆𝑙 ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
dEx= 4𝜋𝜀(ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃)2
𝝆𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
dEx= 4𝜋𝜀ℎ

The electric field Ex due to the entire length of line charge is given by
𝜋−𝛼2 𝝆𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
Ex=∫𝛼1 4𝜋𝜀ℎ
𝑙 𝝆 𝜋−𝛼2
Ex=4𝜋𝜀ℎ ∫𝛼1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃
 𝑙 𝝆
Ex=4𝜋𝜀ℎ [- cos𝜃]
𝑙 𝝆
Ex=4𝜋𝜀ℎ [cos 𝛼1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼2]

Similarly for y component of E.,

𝑙 𝝆
dEy=4𝜋𝜀ℎ cos𝜃 d𝜃

The electric field Ey due to the entire length of line charge is given by
𝜋−𝛼2 𝝆𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
Ey=∫𝛼1 4𝜋𝜀ℎ
𝑙 𝝆 𝜋−𝛼2
Ey=4𝜋𝜀ℎ ∫𝛼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝝆𝑙
Ey = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
𝑙𝝆
Ey =4𝜋𝜀ℎ [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼1]

Case 1:
If the point P is at bisector of a line, then 𝜶𝟏 = 𝜶𝟐 = 𝜶
Ey=0, E becomes Ex
𝑙𝝆
E= 4𝜋𝜀ℎ

Case 2:
If the point P is infinitely long, then 𝜶 = 𝟎
Ey=0, E becomes Ex
𝑙𝝆
E= 4𝜋𝜀ℎ

4.Electric field intensity at a point due to a circular disc of σ coulomb/m2

Consider a circular disc of radius ‘R’ is charged uniformly with a charge density of ρs c/m2. Let
P be any point on the axis of the disc at a distance h from the centre. Consider an annular ring of radius
‘r’ and of radial thickness dr as shown in figure. The area of the annular ring is ds= 2πrdr. The field
intensity at point P due to the charged annular ring is given by
 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
dE=
4𝜋𝜀𝑑2

Since the horizontal component of electric field intensity is zer, the vertical component is given
by
𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝑠
dEy= 4𝜋𝜀𝑑 2
cosθ
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
dEy= cosθ
4𝜋𝜀𝑑2

From the figure., r= h tanθ;

dr= h sec2θ.dθ
𝑟
d= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

substituting the values of dr and d in dEy equation

Then
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃.𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
dEy= 4𝜋𝜀𝑑2
𝜌𝑠 ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃.𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
dEy= 2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝜌𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃.𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑟
dEy= [ henceℎ= tan θ]
2𝜀𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝜌𝑠
dEy= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃 [sec θ sin θ = tan θ]
2𝜀

The total electric field due to the charged disc

𝛼 𝜌𝑠 𝛼
E= ∫𝜃=0 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃
2𝜀 𝜃=0
𝜌𝑠
E= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
2𝜀
𝜌𝑠 ℎ
E= [1 − √ℎ2 ]
2𝜀 +𝑅 2

Electric potential :
The electric potential ‘V’ at any point due to the charged disc is
0 0 𝜌𝑠 ℎ
V= − ∫𝑑 𝐸. 𝑑𝑥 =− ∫𝑑 [1 − √ℎ2 ] 𝑑𝑥
2𝜀 +𝑅 2
𝜌 ℎ 0 𝜌 ℎ
=2𝜀𝑠 [1 − √ℎ2 ] ∫𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜀𝑠 [1 − √ℎ2 2] . 𝑑
+𝑅 2 +𝑅
𝜌 ℎ
=2𝜀𝑠 [1 − √ℎ2 ] √ℎ2 + 𝑅 2
+𝑅 2
𝜌
= 2𝜀𝑠 (√ℎ2 + 𝑅 2 - h) volts.
 UNIT-II
CONDUCTORS AND DIELCTRICS

1.Electric field intensity and potential due to a dipole centered at the origin and oriented along
positive Z axis.
Electric Dipole:
An electric dipole consists of two point charges of equal magnitude but of opposite sign and
separated by a small distance. The product of charge and spacing is called electric dipole moment.
Let Q and -Q be the two charges separated by a distance d. the product of charges Q and
spacing d is called dipole moment.
m= Q d
Let us consider a point P at a distance r, where we are interested to find the field.

𝑄
Potential at P due to +Q is V1= 4𝜋𝜀𝑟1
𝑄
Potential at P due to –Q is V2=
4𝜋𝜀𝑟2
𝑄 1 1
The resultant potential at P is V= V1+V2 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟1 − 𝑟2]

If the point P is too far away from the dipole, the distance r1 and r2 are written as
𝑑
r1 = r - cos𝜃
2
𝑑
r1 = r - cos𝜃
2
𝑑
r2 = r + cos𝜃
2
 The potential at P due to the dipole,
𝑄 1 1
V= ( 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟− 𝑟+
2 2

𝑄 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
V= ( 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟− )(𝑟+ )
2 2

𝑄 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑
V= ( ) [2 << 𝑟 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
V= [m= Qd]
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2

This shows that the potential is directly proportional to the dipole moment and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.

2. Derive the boundary conditions of the normal and tangential components of electric field at the
inter face of two media with different dielectrics.
The boundary condition:
(i) The tangential component of electric field intensity is continuous across the
boundary.
(ii) The normal component of electric flux density is continuous across the boundary.

Consider a boundary between two isotropic homogeneous media is shown in figure. Consider a
small rectangle of width Δx and length Δy at the boundary of the two media. Let Et1 be the tangential
component of magnetic field in medium 1 and Et2 be the tangential component of magnetic field of
medium 2.
In electro static field, the voltage around any closed path must be zero.
V= ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0
Et1 Δy- Et2 Δy= 0
 Et1 = Et2
The tangential component of E in medium 1 is same as medium 2. ie., the tangential
component of E is continuous.
Consider a pill box of surface area ds across the boundary between two isotropic
homogeneous media, as shown in figure.

Let Dn1 be the normal component of magnetic flux density in medium 1 and Dn2 be the
normal component of magnetic flux density in medium 2.
By Gauss’s law for magnetic field

∬ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = 0

Dn1ds- Dn2ds=0
Dn1 = Dn2
The normal component of D is continuous across the boundary.
Consider the magnetic lines away from the normal across the boundary as shown in figure.
 From the figure
Dn1 = D1 cos θ1
Dn2 = D2 cos θ2
But Dn1 = Dn2
D1 cos θ1 = D2 cos θ2
E𝑡1 = E1 sin θ1
E2 = E2 sin θ2
But E1 sin θ1 = E2 sin θ2
Substituting these values in the above equation,
𝐸1 𝐸2
tan θ1 = tan θ2
D1 D2

𝜀2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ1 = 𝜀1𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ2
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝛉𝟏 𝜀𝟏
=
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝛉𝟐 𝜀𝟐

3. Derive an expression for the capacitance of single wire transmission line.

Consider a infinite single wire transmission line ‘A’ parallel to ground at a height of ‘d’ from the
ground and its induced image A’ at a height below the ground as shown in figure.
 If the transmission line A has a charge of ρl C/m along its length, this will induce charge of -ρl
C/m on the image line A’. the electric field intensity at any point P with a distance r from the
transmission line A is algebraic sum of electric field intensity at P due to transmission line A and mage
line A’
Therefore electric field is
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝐸= +
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝜀(2𝑑−𝑟)
𝜌𝑙 1 1
𝐸= [ 𝑟 + 2𝑑−𝑟]
2𝜋𝜀

The potential difference between the transmission lines is given by

V = − ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑟
𝜌
𝑙 𝑎 1 1
= − 2𝜋𝜀 ∫2𝑑−𝑎 [ 𝑟 + 2𝑑−𝑟] 𝑑𝑟
𝜌
𝑙 𝑎 𝑎
= − 2𝜋𝜀 [𝑙𝑛 2𝑑−𝑎 + 𝑙𝑛 2𝑑−𝑎]
𝜌 𝑎
= − 𝜋𝜀𝑙 [𝑙𝑛 2𝑑−𝑎]
𝜌 2𝑑−𝑎
= 𝜋𝜀𝑙 [𝑙𝑛 ]
𝒂

Since the ground is exactly mid way between the transmission lines A and A’. the potential
of the actual transmission line A is one half of the potential difference between transmission line A
and image line A’ ie V/2
𝜌
C = 𝑣/2𝑙
𝜌𝑙
= 𝜌𝑙 2𝑑−𝑎
[𝑙𝑛 ]
𝜋𝜀 𝒂

2𝜋𝜀
= 2𝑑−𝑎 F/m
𝑙𝑛[ ]
𝒂

4. Derive the expression for the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor having two dielectric
media.
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor consists of two dielectrics as shown.

The relative permittivity of dielectric medium 1 and medium 2 are εr1 and εr2
respectively. If the potential across the capacitor is V, the potential difference across medium 1 and
medium 2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
V= V1 + V2
Let E1 and E2 field intensities of medium 1 and medium 2 respectively, then
V1= E1d1
V2= E2(d-d1)
V= V1+V2
= E1d1+E2(d-d1)
The electric flux density D= Q/A will be the same in both the media. The electric field
intensities for both the media are given by
E1 = D/ εr1= Q/ Aεr1ε0
E2 = D/ εr2= Q/ Aεr2ε0
The applied potential V= E1d1+E2(d-d1)
V= Q/ Aεr0[ d1/ εr1+ d-d1/ εr2 ]
Q/V= Aεr0 / [ d1/ εr1+ d-d1/ εr2 ]
C= Aεr0 / [ d1/ εr1+ d-d1/ εr2 ]
The capacitance
C= Aε0 εr1 εr2/ [ d1 εr2+ (d-d1) εr1 ]
If the medium 1 is air, εr1 = 1 and for medium 2 εr2 = εr. .The capacitance of capacitor is
C= Aε0 εr/ [ d1 εr+ (d-d1)].
5. (i)Derive an expression for capacitance of co-axial cable.
 Consider a coaxial cable of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ as shown in fig. the relative
permittivity of dielectric filled in between two coaxial cylinders is εr. A potential difference V is
applied in between two cylinders. The two cylinders are charged at the rate of ρl c/m

By applying Gauss’s law, the electric field E at any distance r from the axis of cylinder is
given by
E = ρl / 2πεr
The potential difference between two coaxial cable is
𝑎
V= - ∫𝑏 𝐸𝑑𝑟
𝑎
= -ρl / 2πε ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑟/𝑟
= ρl / 2πε ln [b/a]
The capacitance of coaxial cable per unit length is
C = ρl / V= 2πε/ ln [b/a] F/m
= 2πε0εr/ ln [b/a] F/m
(ii)Derive an expression for force between two current carrying conductors.
Consider two straight long parallel conductors P and Q separated by a distance d. let I1 and I2 be
the current flowing in conductor P and Q respectively.

Consider a conductor P produces a magnetic field whose flux density is B at conductor Q

 B= μoI/ 2πd
The force on conductor Q due to P is given by
F= BI2 l
Where l is the length of the conductor
F= μoI1 I2 l / 2πd
If the currents of conductors P and Q are flowing in same direction, there is a force of attraction.
If the currents are flowing in opposite direction, there is a force of repulsion. However the
value of force is same.
F= μoI1 I2 l / 2πd N
If the conductors are infinitely long the force per unit length is
F= μoI1 I2 / 2πd N/m
6. (i)Prove Laplace’s and Poisson’s equations.
According to Gauss’s law in point form the divergence of electric flux density is equal to the
volume charge density.
∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣
But D= εE
∇. εE= 𝜌𝑣
ε∇. E= 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣
∇. E= 𝜀

But E= -∇V
𝜌𝑣
∇.( -∇V) = − 𝜀
𝜌𝑣
∇.∇V = − 𝜀
𝜌𝑣
∇2 𝑉 = − 𝜀

This is Poisson’s equation.

For Cartesian co-ordinates system
𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝜕𝑉
∇.∇V = ( ) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝜕𝑦) + 𝜕𝑧 ( 𝜕𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
= (𝜕𝑥 2 ) + (𝜕𝑦 2 ) + ( 𝜕𝑧 2 )

Poisson’s equation for Cartesian co-ordinate system is written as

𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜌𝑣
∇2 𝑉 = (𝜕𝑥 2 ) + (𝜕𝑦 2 ) + ( 𝜕𝑧 2 )= − 𝜀

For cylindrical co-ordinate system, the Poisson’s equation is

 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜌𝑣
∇2 𝑉 = ( )+ ( )+( )= −
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌2 𝜕∅2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜀

For spherical co-ordinate system, the Poisson’s equation is

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2𝑉 𝜌𝑣
∇2 𝑉 = (𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 ) + 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝜕𝜑2)= −
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝜀

If the volume charge density 𝜌𝑣 is zero, then

∇2 𝑉 = 0
This is Laplace’s equation. The operator ∇2 is called Laplacian operator.
(ii)Derive an expression for coefficient of coupling
The fraction of the total flux produced by one coil linking a second coil is called the
coefficient of coupling(K)
∅ ∅
K= ∅12 = ∅21
1 2

The mutual inductance is given by

𝑁2 ∅12 𝑁1 ∅21
M= and M =
𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑁2 ∅12 𝑁1 ∅21
M2=( )( )
𝑖1 𝑖2

Substitute the value of ∅12 and ∅21 interms of K

𝑁2 𝐾 ∅1 𝑁1 𝐾 ∅2
M2=( )( )
𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁1 ∅2
M2=𝐾 2 ( )( )
𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁1 ∅2
M2= 𝐾 2 𝐿1𝐿2 [𝐿1 = ( ) & 𝐿2 = ( )]
𝑖1 𝑖2

∴ M= 𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2
M
∴𝐾=
√𝐿1 𝐿2

Since ∅12 < ∅1 or ∅21 < ∅2 , then M< √𝐿1 𝐿2

ie., K is always less than one. K<1

7. Electrostatic energy and energy density.

The capacitor stores the electrostatic energy equal to work done to build up the charge. If a
voltage source is connected across the capacitor, the capacitor charges.
Potential is defined as the work done per unit charge.
𝑑𝑊
V= 𝑑𝑄
 The work done dW= V.dQ
𝑄
But V=𝐶

The capacitor is charged to the value of Q. the total work done is

𝑄𝑄 1 𝑄2
W=∫0 𝐶 dQ= [2]
𝐶
𝑄2
W= 2𝐶 joules

But Q=CV
1
W= 2C𝑉 2 joules

or
1
W= 2QV joules

Energy density
Consider a elementary cube of side Δd parallel to the plates of a capacitor .
The capacitance of elemental capacitor is
𝜀𝐴 𝜀Δd2
ΔC= Δd = = 𝜀 Δd.
Δd

Energy stored in the elemental capacitor is

1
ΔW = ΔCΔV 2
2

But potential difference across the elementary cube is

ΔV= E. Δd
Where E is the electric field exist in the cube.
Substituting the values of ΔC and ΔV in energy stored equation.
The stored energy
1 1
ΔW= 2(𝜀 Δd) (E. Δd)2 = 2 𝜀 E 2 ( Δd)3
1
ΔW= 𝜀 E 2 Δv
2

Where Δv = ( Δd)3 is elementary volume.

The energy density is given by
ΔW 1
= 𝜀 E2 [ D= 𝜀 𝐸]
Δv 2
ΔW 1
=2 𝐷. 𝐸 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 /𝑚3
Δv

UNIT-III
 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELD

1. Derive the expression for magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux density due to finite and
infinite line.

Consider an uniformly straight conductor carrying a current I and also consider a current
element Idl as shown in figure. Let P be the any point at which magnetic field intensity is to be
measured at a distance r from the current element Idl. According to Biot-Savart’s law The magnetic
field density at any point P is given by
𝝁𝟎𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
B= 𝟒𝝅 ∫ 𝒓𝟐

From Δ ABC
AC/AB= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
AC = dl 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
But arc AC = r d𝜃
𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = r d𝜃
𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= d𝜃
𝑟

Substituting this value in B equation

𝝁
𝟎𝑰 𝒅𝜽
B= 𝟒𝝅 ∫ 𝒓

From the figure

𝑑
=sin𝜃
𝑟
𝑑
r= sin𝜃

substituting the value of r in B equation

 𝜇
0𝐼 𝜋
B= 4𝜋𝑑 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
𝜇
0𝐼
B= 4𝜋𝑑 [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] π
𝜇
0𝐼
= 4𝜋𝑑 .2

The magnetic flux densitydue to infinite conductor

𝜇
0𝐼
B=2𝜋𝑑 weber/m2

The magnetic field intensity due to infinite conductor

𝐼
H=2𝜋𝑑 A/m

2. Derive the expressions for magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux density due to circular
coil.

Consider a circular coil of radius a carrying a current of I and also consider a current element
Idl. Let P be any point at a distance d from the centre of the coil as shown in figure.
The magnetic flux density at P due to the current element
0𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝜇
dB=4𝜋𝑟 2

From Δ AOP r2= a2+d2

dB= dB cosθ
𝑎
= dB√𝑎2
+𝑑2
𝜇0𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑎
dB=
4𝜋(𝑎2 +𝑑2 ) √𝑎2 +𝑑2
𝜇
dB= 4𝜋(𝑎20𝑎𝐼𝑑𝑙
+𝑑2 )3/2

The magnetic flux density due to circular coil is given by

𝜇
B=4𝜋(𝑎20𝑎𝐼𝑑𝑙 ∫ 𝑑𝑙
+𝑑2 )3/2
𝜇
B=4𝜋(𝑎20𝑎𝐼𝑑𝑙 2𝜋𝑎
+𝑑2 )3/2
𝜇 2
0𝑎 𝐼
B=2(𝑎2 +𝑑 2 )3/2
weber/m2
 The magnetic field intensity due to circular coil is given by
𝑎2 𝐼
H=2(𝑎2 +𝑑2)3/2 A/m

If d=0, the field at the centre

𝜇0𝑎2 𝐼
Flux density B= 𝑎3
𝜇
B=2𝑎0𝐼 weber/m2
𝐼
Field intensity H=2𝑎 A/m

3. Derive a general expression for the magnetic flux density B at any point along the axis of a long
solenoid. Sketch the variation of B from point to point along the axis.

A solenoid is a cylindrical shaped coil consisting of a large number of turns wound on

a non magnetic frame.
Consider a solenoid which has N turns of length l whose mean radius a carrying a
current I.
Let P be the any point on the axis of the solenoid where the flux density is to be
determined.
𝑁𝐼
Consider an elemental length dl of the solenoid carrying the current of .dl at a distance
𝑙

r from P.
The flux density due to the circular current element at point P is given by
𝜇0 𝑎2 𝑁𝐼
𝑑𝐵 = .dl
2𝑟3 𝑙
𝑎
From the figure = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
 𝑎
=𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜇0 𝑎 2 𝑁𝐼
Then 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 .dl
2𝑟3 𝑙

𝜇 𝑁𝐼
𝑑𝐵 = 2𝑎0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 .dl
𝑙

From the figure., rd𝜃 = 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

and a= rsin𝜃
Substitute these values in dB equation
𝜇 𝑁𝐼 𝑟𝑑𝜃
0
dB= 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑑𝜃
2𝑙

The total magnetic flux density at point P due to whole solenoid is given by
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝜋−𝜃2
B= ∫𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B= [cosθ1+cosθ2]
2𝑙

The magnetic field intensity due to solenoid at P is given by

𝑁𝐼
H= 2𝑙 [cosθ1+cosθ2]

Case 1: If the point P is on the middle of the axis of solenoid, θ1= θ2

The magnetic flux density at mid point P on the axis of solenoid is

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B= 2cosθ1
2𝑙
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B= cosθ1
𝑙
 𝑙/2
Where cosθ1= 2
√( 𝑙 ) + 𝑎2
2

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B=
𝑙 2
2√( ) + 𝑎2
2

The magnetic field intensity is given by

𝑁𝐼
H= 2
𝑙
2√( ) + 𝑎2
2

Case 1: If the point P at the end of the axis of solenoid, θ2= 900

The magnetic flux density at end point P on the axis of solenoid is given by

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B= cosθ1
2𝑙
𝑙
Where cosθ1 = √𝑙2 + 𝑎2
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B=
2√𝑙2 + 𝑎2

The magnetic field intensity is given by

𝑁𝐼
H=
2√𝑙2 + 𝑎2

4. State Ampere’s circuital law and explain any two applications of Ampere’s Circuital law
Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity H around any
closed path is equal to the direct current enclosed by that path.

∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼

Ampere’s law is applied to determine magnetic field intensity H when the current distribution
is symmetrical.
Applications:
(i)Infinite line current:

Consider an infinitely long conductor current carrying I along the Z- axis as shown in figure.
Let P be the any point at which H has to be determined. Consider a closed path passing through P
which is known as Amperian path. Since this path encloses the whole current I, according to Ampere’s
law.
I= ∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙= H(2πr)
𝐼
H= 𝑎𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗
2πr

(ii)Infinite sheet of current:

Consider an infinite current sheet in the z=0 plane as shown in figure. Let the current
𝑎𝑦 A/m. consider a rectangular closed path by applying ampere’s law.
density of sheet is K=𝑘𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙=I=𝑘𝑦 𝑏

Due to the infinite sheet, the sheet can be considered as consisting of filamentary pairs so that
 the characteristics of H for a pair are the same for the infinite sheet of current.
𝐻𝑜𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 𝑧>0
{ }
−𝐻𝑜𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 𝑧<0
H on one side of the sheet is the negative of that on the other side.
The integral of rectangular path is given by
2 3 4 1
∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫1 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 + ∫2 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 + ∫3 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 + ∫4 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙
= 0(-a)+ (-H0) (-b)+0(a)+H0(b)
∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 2 𝐻𝑜 𝑏
Equating ∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 equations
2 𝐻𝑜 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑦 𝑏
𝑘𝑦
H0 = 2
𝑘𝑦
Then, H= 𝑎𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗ z> 0
2
−𝑘𝑦
= 𝑎𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗ z> 0
2

In general, for an infinite sheet of current density K A/m

1
H= 2 𝐾𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛

Where 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 is the unit normal vector.

5. Obtain the expression for scalar and vector magnetic potential

SCALAR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL:
Ampere’s law stated that the line integral of the field H around a closed path is equal to the
current enclosed.

∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼

If no current is enclosed ie., J=0

∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 0

Magnetic field H can be expressed as negative gradient of scalar function.

𝐻 = − ∇𝑉𝑚
Where, Vm is called scalar magnetic potential
 𝑉𝑚 = − ∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙

This is scalar potential also satisfies Laplace’s equation.

In free space
∇. B = 0

𝜇0 ∇. H = 0
But H= −∇Vm
𝜇0 ∇. (−∇Vm) = 0
−𝜇0 ∇2 Vm = 0

∇2 Vm = 0

VECTOR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL:

Scalar magnetic potential exists if there is no current enclose ie., ∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 0. If current is
enclosed, the potential which depends upon current element is no more scalar but it is vector quantity.
Since the divergence of a vector is a scalar, vector potential is expressed in curl.
∇. B = 0
B=∇ x H
Where A is magnetic vector potential.
Take curl on both sides
∇ x B=∇ x∇ x A
By the vector identity
∇ x∇ x A = = ∇ (∇ . A) − ∇2 𝐴
But ∇ x B = 𝜇𝐽
∇ (∇ . A) − ∇2 𝐴 = 𝜇𝐽
For steady dc
∇ .A = 0
Then −∇2 𝐴 = 𝜇𝐽
𝑥∇2 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑦∇2 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑧∇2 𝐴𝑧 = − 𝜇(𝑥𝐽𝑥 + 𝑦𝐽𝑦 +𝑧𝐽𝑧
Equating ∇2 𝐴𝑥 = −𝜇𝐽𝑥
∇2 𝐴𝑦 = −𝜇𝐽𝑦
 ∇2 𝐴𝑧 = −𝜇𝐽𝑧
There are in the form of Poisson’s equation. From the above equation, the magnetic vector
potential can be written as,

𝜇 𝐽𝑥
𝐴𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇 𝐽𝑦
𝐴𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇 𝐽𝑧
𝐴𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋 𝑟
The general, magnetic vector potential can be expressed as
𝜇 𝐽
A=4𝜋 ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑣

UNIT-IV
MAGNETIC FORCES AND MATERIALS
1. Explain magnetic boundary conditions with neat sketch.
The boundary condition between the two different magnetic materials are given below
(i)The tangential component of magnetic field intensity is continuous across the
boundary.
(ii)The normal component of magnetic flux density is continuous across the boundary.
Consider a boundary between two isotropic homogeneous media with permeabilities μ1 μ2 as
shown in figure.
 Consider a small rectangle of width Δx and length Δy at the boundary of the two media. Let Ht1
be the tangential component of magnetic field in medium 1 and Ht2 be the tangential component of
magnetic field of medium 2.

According to amperes law

∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼

If there is no current enclosed by the path

∫ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 0

Ht1 Δy- Ht2 Δy= 0

Ht1 = Ht2
The tangential component of H in medium 1 is same as medium 2. ie., the tangential
component of H is continuous.
Consider a pill box of surface area ds across the boundary between two isotropic
homogeneous media, as shown in figure.

Let Bn1 be the normal component of magnetic flux density in medium 1 and Bn2 be the
normal component of magnetic flux density in medium 2.
By Gauss’s law for magnetic field

∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0

Bn1ds- Bn2ds=0
Bn1 = Bn2
The normal component of B is continuous across the boundary.
Consider the magnetic lines away from the normal across the boundary as shown in figure.

From the figure

Bn1 = B1 cos θ1
Bn2 = B2 cos θ2
But Bn1 = Bn2

B1 cos θ1 = B2 cos θ2 ………………………(1)

B𝑡1
Ht1= 𝜇1
B𝑡2
Ht2= 𝜇2

But Ht1 = Ht 2
B𝑡1 B𝑡2
=
𝜇1 𝜇2

𝜇2 B𝑡1 =𝜇1 B𝑡2

From the figure
B𝑡1 = B1 sin θ1
B2 = B2 sin θ2
Substituting these values in the above equation,
𝜇2 B1 sin θ1= 𝜇1 sin θ2 …………………………(2) by (1)
 𝜇2 B1 sin θ1 𝜇1 B2 sin θ2
=
B1 cos θ1 B2 cos θ2

𝜇2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ1 = 𝜇1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ2
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝛉𝟏 𝝁𝟏
=
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝛉𝟐 𝝁𝟐

2. Derive an expression for inductance of coaxial cable.

Consider a coaxial cable of inner radius a and outer radius b as shown in figure. Let I be the
current in inner cylinder and –I be the current in outer cylinder.
Consider a annular ring of thickness dr at a distance r from the centre of the cable.
The flux density B is given by
𝜇0 𝐼
B= 2𝜋𝑟

The total flux linkage per unit length is between a and b,

b μ0 I
𝜑 = ∫a dr
2πr
𝜇0 𝐼
= [𝑙𝑛𝑟]
2𝜋
𝜇 𝐼
0 𝑏
= 2𝜋 ln( 𝑎 )

Inductance of coaxial cable per unit length is given by

𝜑
L= 𝐼
𝜇0 𝑏
L= ln( 𝑎 )
2𝜋
3. Derive an expression for inductance of two transmission line.

The internal flux linkage of the conductor A is given by

𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐼
𝜑1 = 8𝜋

The external flux linkage of the conductor A is given by

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑
𝜑2 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 𝑎

The total flux linkage of A is

𝜑 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑
= + 𝑙𝑛
8𝜋 2𝜋 𝑎

The total inductance of conductor A is

𝜑
LA = 𝐼
𝜇0 𝜇 𝑑
LA = [ 2𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑎 )]H/m
4𝜋

Similarly for conductor B, the total flux linkage is

𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑
𝜑= + 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑏 )
8𝜋 2𝜋

The total inductance of conductor B is

𝜇 𝜇 𝑑
LB = 4𝜋0 [ 2𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑏 )]H/m

The lop inductance of transmission line per unit length is given by

L = LA + LB
𝜇0 𝜇 𝑑 𝜇0 𝜇 𝑑
= [ 2𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑎 )] + [ 2𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑏 )]
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝜇0 𝑑 𝑑
= [𝜇𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑎 ) + 2𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑏)]
4𝜋
 𝜇0 𝑑 2
= [𝜇𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑛 ( ) ]H/m
4𝜋 𝑎𝑏

4. Derive an expression for the energy stored in the magnetic field of a coil possessing an
inductance of L Henry when the current in the coil is 1 amp.
When the current through an inductor is increased from 0 to 1 with the potential difference
across the inductor is v, then the energy supplied by the source in time dt is given by
dW= v i dt
Energy stored in magnetic field is given by
1 1 𝑑𝑖
W=∫0 𝑣 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝐿 . 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑖2
= 𝐿 ∫0 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿 2
1
W= 𝐿𝑖 2
2

Energy density:
Energy stored in magnetic field is given by
1
W= 𝐿𝑖 2
2

The inductance of solenoid (for example) is given by

𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
L= 𝑙

Substituting the value of L in the above equation

1 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴𝐼 2
W= 2 𝑙

1 𝑁𝐼 2
= 𝜇0 ( 𝑙 ) lA
2
1
= 𝜇0 𝐻 2 lA
2

Energy stored per unit volume

1
W= 𝜇0 𝐻 2 v J/m2
2
W 1
= 𝜇0 𝐻 2 J/m2
𝑣 2
W 1
= (𝜇0 𝐻)𝐻 J/m2
𝑣 2

Magnetic energy density

 1
W= 𝐵𝐻 J/m2
2

The energy stored in a magneto static field is

W= ∫ 𝑤 𝑑𝑣
1
W= 2
∫ 𝐵𝐻 𝑑𝑣
(Or)
1
W= 2
∫ 𝜇0 𝐻 2 𝑑𝑣

5. Derive an expression for self and mutual inductance.

Self inductance:
By Faraday’s law, changing current will produce an induced emf in the circuit to
oppose the change in flux. This phenomena is known as self inductance.
Consider a coil having N number of turns. If changing currnt is applid, the emf is
induced in the coil.
The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of current
𝑑𝑖
v𝛼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
v= L 𝑑𝑡

where L is the self inductance.

From Faraday’s law the induced emf is
𝑑𝜑
v =N 𝑑𝑡

equating these two equations,

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝜑
L 𝑑𝑡 = N 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜑
L= N 𝑑𝑖

If the permeability is constant, then

𝑁𝜑
L= 𝑖

The inductance is defined as the ratio of total magnetic flux linkage to the current through the
coil.
Mutual inductance:
 Consider two coils coils1 and 2 magnetically coupled together as shown in figure. The
changing i1 produces a flux φ1. If a second coil is placed near the first coil, some of the flux links coil
2, say φ12 the induced emf in coil 2 is given by
𝑑𝜑12
V2=N2 𝑑𝑡

Since flux 𝜑12 is produced by first coil current i1, the induced emf v2 in coil 2 is proportional
to the rate of change of current i1
𝑑𝑖1
V2 𝛼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1
V2=M 𝑑𝑡

Where M is the mutual inductance between the two coils.

Equating these two equations,
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝜑12
M = N2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜑12
M= N2 𝑑𝑖1

If the permeability is constant,

𝑁2 𝜑12
M= 𝑖1

Similarly, if the flux 𝜑21 is produced by second coil current i2, the induced emf v1 in coil 1 is
proportional to the rate of change of current i2
𝑑𝑖2
V1𝛼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2
V1= 𝑀 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜑21
From Faraday’s law, V1= 𝑁1 𝑑𝑡

Equating these two equations,

𝑑𝜑21
M= 𝑁1 𝑑𝑖2

If the permeability is constant, then

 𝜑21
M= 𝑁1 𝑖2

The mutual inductance between two coils is defined as the ratio of induced magnetic flux
linkage in one coil to the current through the other coil.
UNIT-V
TIME VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

1. Derive the Maxwell’s equation in differential and integral forms.

Maxwell’s equation from Ampere:
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity H on any closed
path is equal to the current enclosed by that path.

∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝑰 = ∬ 𝑱 𝒅𝒔

Conduction current density:

According to Ohm’s law the current through a conductor of resistance R is given by

𝑉
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑅
𝜌𝑙 𝑙
But R= =𝜎𝐴
𝐴

𝑉𝜎𝐴
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑙
If E is the electric field, then voltage V= E.l
Substituting the value of V
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐸𝜎𝐴
𝐼𝑐
= 𝐸𝜎
𝐴
 𝐼
Conduction current density( Jc= 𝐴𝑐 )is

Jc = 𝜎𝐸
Displacement current density:
The current through a capacitor is
𝑑𝑄
ID= 𝑑𝑡

But Q= CV
C𝑑V
ID= 𝑑𝑡

The expression for capacitor is

εA
C= 𝑑

Substituting the value of C in the above equation

εA dv
ID= .
𝑑 𝑑𝑡

But V=Ed
εA dE
ID= .𝑑
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
dE
ID = εA . 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝐷 dE 𝜕𝐷
=ε =
𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐼
Displacement current density (JD= 𝐴) is
𝜕𝐷
JD= 𝜕𝑡

Ampere’s law can be written as

∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = ∬ 𝑱𝒄 + 𝑱𝑫 𝒅𝒔

Then
𝜕𝐷
∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = ∬ (𝐸𝜎 + ) 𝒅𝒔
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸
∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = ∬ (𝐸𝜎 + ε ) 𝒅𝒔
𝜕𝑡

Or
𝜕𝐸
∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = ∬ (𝐽 + ε ) 𝒅𝒔
𝜕𝑡
This is Maxwell’s equation in integral form from Ampere’s law. By applying Stoke’s theorem,

∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = ∬ 𝛁𝒙𝑯. 𝒅𝒔

Comparing the above two equations, then

𝜕𝐸
∬ ∇𝑥𝐻. 𝑑𝑠 = ∬ (𝐽 + ε 𝜕𝑡
) . 𝑑𝑠

𝜕𝐸
∇𝑥𝐻= 𝐸𝜎 + ε 𝜕𝑡

This is Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form from Ampere’s law

Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law:

From Faraday’s law states that the electromagnetic force induced in a circuit is equal to the
rate of decrease of magnetic flux linkage the circuit.
−𝑑𝜑 𝑑
𝑣= = ∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

But v = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
𝑑
∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙= - 𝑑𝑡 ∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠

∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙=− ∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
Or
𝜕𝐻
∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙=−µ ∬ 𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑠
This is Maxwell’s equation in integral form.
By applying Stoke’s theorem

∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇𝑥𝐸. 𝑑𝑠

Comparing both the equations,

𝜕𝐵
∬ ∇𝑥𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = − ∬ . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵
∇𝑥𝐸=- 𝜕𝑡
 𝜕𝐻
∇𝑥𝐸=- µ
𝜕𝑡

This is the Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law in differential or point form.
Maxwell’s equation from electric Gauss’s law:
Electric Gauss’s law:
Gauss’s law states that electric flux emerging through any closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed by the surface.
χ= Q
∬ D. 𝑑𝑠 = Q
Or
∭ 𝜌𝑣 dv = Q
Then
∬ D. 𝑑𝑠= ∭ 𝜌𝑣 dv
This is the Maxwell’s equation from electric Gauss’s law in integral from.
By applying Divergence theorem
∬ D. 𝑑𝑠=∭ ∇. 𝐷 dv
Comparing the above two equations
∭ ∇. 𝐷 dv= ∭ 𝜌𝑣 dv
∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣
This is the Maxwell’s equation from electric Gauss’s law in differential or point form.

Maxwell’s equation from Magnetic Gauss’s law:

Magnetic Gauss’s law:
Magnetic Gauss’s law states that the total magnetic flux through any closed surface is equal
to zero
φ= 0
∬ B. 𝑑𝑠 =0
This is the Maxwell’s equation in integral form from magnetic Gauss’s law.
By applying Divergence theorem,
∬ B. 𝑑𝑠= ∭ ∇. 𝐵 dv
Comparing the above two equations
∭ ∇. 𝐵 = 0
 ∇. 𝐵 = 0
This is the Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form.

2. Explain complex, average and instantaneous poynting vector.

The vector product of electric field intensity and magnetic field intensity at any point is a
measure of the rate of energy flow per unit area at that point.
𝑃=𝐸x𝐻
The direction of flow (P) is perpendicular to E and H.
Proof:
The energy flow equation can be obtained from Maxwell’s equation.
From Maxwell’s 1st equation,
𝜕𝐸
∇𝑥𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝜀 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
J=∇𝑥𝐻- 𝜀 𝜕𝑡

If it is multiplied through E, it will be the power per unit volume.

𝜕𝐸
E.J= E. ∇𝑥𝐻- 𝜀𝐸 𝜕𝑡

But the identity says,

∇. E𝑥𝐻=H.∇xE- E . ∇xH
Or
E . ∇xH= H.∇xE-∇. E𝑥𝐻
𝜕𝐸
Then, E.J= H.∇xE-∇. E𝑥𝐻 - 𝜀𝐸 𝜕𝑡

But Maxwell’s second equation,

𝜕𝐻
∇xE = −µ 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐸
E.J= −µH 𝜕𝑡 -∇. E𝑥𝐻 - 𝜀𝐸 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 1 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕
H. 𝜕𝑡 = 𝐻2 E. 𝜕𝑡 = 2 𝜕𝑡 𝐸 2
2 𝜕𝑡

Substituting these values in the above equation,

µ 𝜕 𝜀 𝜕
E.J= - 2 𝜕𝑡 𝐻 2 - 2 𝜕𝑡 𝐸 2 -∇. E𝑥𝐻

Integrating over a volume v,

𝜕 µ 𝜀
∫ 𝐸. 𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = − -∫ (2 𝐻 2 + 2 𝐸 2 ) 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ ∇. E𝑥𝐻. 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡
 Using divergence theorem,
∫ ∇. E𝑥𝐻 . 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ E𝑥𝐻 . 𝑑𝑠
Then
𝜕 µ 𝜀
∫ 𝐸. 𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = (∫ 2 𝐻 2 + 2 𝐸 2 ) 𝑑𝑣-∫ E𝑥𝐻 . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡

Poynting vector:
By poynting theorem the vector product of electric field intensity and magnetic field
intensity is another product called pointing vector.
The pointing vector measures the rate of flow of energy of the wave as it propagates.

Instantaneous, average and complex pointing vector:

In ac circuit, the instantaneous power is given by the product of the instantaneous voltage and
instantaneous current.
The instantaneous power w can be written in terms of instantaneous voltage v and i as
V= Re[V e jωt]= |V| cos (ωt+θv)
i= Re[I e jωt]= |I| cos (ωt+θi)
The instantaneous power is
W= |V| I| cos(ωt+θv) cos (ωt+θi)
|V| I|
W= [cos(θv- θi) + cos (2ωt+θv+ θi)]
2

The instantaneous power flow per square meter i.e., poynting vector is
𝑃=𝐸x𝐻
The average power is given by
|V| I|
Wav= cos( θv − θi )
2

If θv − θi = θ, the angle between voltage and current, then

|V| I|
Wav= cos θ
2

The reactive power is given by

|V| I|
Wrea = sin θ
2

The complex power W is defined as

 1
W= 2 𝑉𝐼 ∗

Where 𝐼 ∗ is complex conjugate of I

|𝑉| 𝐼|
W= 𝑒 𝑗𝜃
2

W=Wav+jWrea
The complex poynting vector P is
1
P= 2 𝐸𝑥𝐻 ∗

It consists of real and imaginary power flow per square meter.

The real poynting vector is
1
Pav= 2 𝑅𝑒[𝐸𝑥𝐻∗ ]

The imaginary poynting vector

1
Prea= 2 𝐼𝑚[𝐸𝑥𝐻 ∗ ]

In rectangular co ordinates, the complex poynting vector normal to y- z plane is

1
Px= 2 [𝐸𝑦𝐻𝑧 ∗ − [𝐸𝑧𝐻𝑦 ∗ ]

3. Derive the wave equation.

Wave equation for conduction medium:
The electromagnetic wave equation can be obtained from Maxwell’s equation:
The Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law in point form is given by
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐻
𝛻𝑥𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡

Take curl on both sides,

𝜕𝐻
𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐸 = −𝜇𝛻 𝜕𝑡 …….(1)

But Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law in point form is

𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐸
𝛻𝑥𝐻 = 𝐽 + = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Differentiating,
𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
𝛻𝑥 =𝜕𝑡 (𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
𝛻𝑥 = 𝜎 𝜕𝑡 + 𝜀 ………..(2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

Substituting the equations (2) in equation (1)

 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐸=−𝜇 [𝜎 +𝜀 ]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
= −𝜇 𝜎 𝜕𝑡 − 𝜇 𝜀 ………….(3)
𝜕𝑡 2

But according to the identity,

𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐸=𝛻(𝛻. 𝐸)- 𝛻 2 𝐸 ……………(4)
1
But 𝛻. 𝐸 = 𝛻. 𝐷
𝜀

Since there is no net charge within the conductor, the charge density ρ = 0.
𝛻. 𝐷 = 0
𝛻. 𝐸 = 0
Then equation (4) becomes,
𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐸 = −𝛻 2 𝐸 …………….(5)
Comparing the equations (3) and (5) becomes,
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
−𝛻 2 𝐸 = 𝜇 𝜎 𝜕𝑡 + 𝜇 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
𝛻 2 𝐸 - 𝜇 𝜎 𝜕𝑡 − 𝜇 𝜀 =0 ………….(6)
𝜕𝑡 2

This is wave equation in terms of electric field E.

The wave equation in terms of magnetic field H is obtained in a similar manner as follows.
The Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law in point form is given by
𝜕𝐸
𝛻𝑥𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 𝜕𝑡

Taking curl on both sides,

𝜕𝐸
𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐻= 𝜎𝛻𝑥𝐸+ 𝜀𝛻𝑥 𝜕𝑡 ……………(7)

But Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law

𝜕𝐻
𝛻𝑥𝐸= −𝜇 𝜕𝑡

Differentiating with respect to ‘t’,

𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻𝑥 𝜕𝑡 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 2
∂E
Substituting the values of ∇xE and ∇x ∂t in equation (7)
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐻 = −𝜇 𝜎 −𝜇𝜀 ………….(8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

But the identity is ∇x∇xH ==∇(∇. H)- ∇2 H

But 𝛻. 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝛻. 𝐻 =0
 Then,
𝛻𝑥𝛻𝑥𝐻 = −𝛻 2 𝐻 ………………….(9)
Comparing equations (8) and(9)
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻2𝐻 = 𝜇 𝜎 + 𝜇𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 2 𝐻- 𝜇 𝜎 − 𝜇𝜀 =0 ………(10)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

This is the wave equation in terms of magnetic field H.

Wave equation for free space:
For free space the conductivity of the medium is zero (𝜎 = 0) and there is no charge
containing in it(i.e., ρ=0). The electromagnetic wave equation can be obtained from Maxwell’s
equation
The Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law for free space in point form is
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐻
∇𝑥𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡

Taking curl on both sides,

𝜕𝐻
∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐸 = −𝜇∇ 𝜕𝑡 …….(1)

But Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law in point form is

𝜕𝐸
∇𝑥𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + ε 𝜕𝑡

But 𝜎 = 0
𝜕𝐸
Therefore, ∇𝑥𝐻 = ε 𝜕𝑡

Differentiating,
𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
∇𝑥 𝜕𝑡 =𝜕𝑡 ( ε )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐸
∇𝑥 𝜕𝑡 = ε ………..(2)
𝜕𝑡 2

Substituting the equations (2) in equation (1)

𝜕2𝐸
∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐸 =−𝜇 [ε ]
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2𝐸
= −𝜇 ε ………….(3)
𝜕𝑡 2

But according to the identity,

∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐸=∇(∇. 𝐸)- ∇2 𝐸 ……………(4)
1
But ∇. 𝐸 = ∇. 𝐷
𝜀

Since there is no net charge within the conductor, the charge density ρ = 0.
 ∇. 𝐷 = 0
∇. 𝐸 = 0
Then equation (4) becomes,
∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐸 = −∇2 𝐸 …………….(5)
Comparing the equations (3) and (5) becomes,
𝜕2𝐸
−∇2 𝐸 = 𝜇 ε 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝐸
∇2 𝐸 −𝜇 ε =0 ………….(6)
𝜕𝑡 2

This is wave equation for free space in terms of electric field E.

The wave equation for free space in terms of magnetic field H
The wave equation for free space in terms of magnetic field h is obtained in a similar manner
as follows.
The Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law in point form is given by
𝜕𝐸
∇𝑥𝐻 = ε 𝜕𝑡

Taking curl on both sides,

𝜕𝐸
∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐻= ε∇x ……………(7)
𝜕𝑡

But Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law

𝜕𝐻
∇𝑥𝐸= −𝜇 𝜕𝑡

Differentiating with respect to ‘t’,

𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐻
∇x 𝜕𝑡 = −𝜇 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐸
Substituting the values of ∇𝑥𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇x 𝜕𝑡 in equation (7)
𝜕2𝐻
∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐻 − 𝜇 ε 𝜕𝑡 2 ………….(8)

But the identity is ∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐻 ==∇(∇. 𝐻)- ∇2 𝐻

But ∇. 𝐵 = 𝜇 ∇. 𝐻 =0
Then,

∇𝑥∇𝑥𝐻 = −∇2 𝐻 ………………….(9)

Comparing equations (8) and(9)
𝜕2𝐻
∇2 𝐻 = 𝜇 ε 𝜕𝑡 2
 𝜕2 𝐻
∇2 𝐻 − 𝜇 ε =0 ………(10)
𝜕𝑡 2

This is the wave equation for free space in terms of magnetic field H.
For free space μr =1 and εr=1, then wave equation becomes
𝜕2𝐻
∇2 𝐻 - μ0ε0 𝜕𝑡 2 =0

μ0ε0= 4π x 107x8.854x10-12
1
= 3x108 m/s= V0
√ 𝜇0 𝜀 0

Where V0 is the velocity of light.

Then the wave equation becomes,
1 𝜕2𝐻 1 𝜕2𝐸
∇2 𝐻 - √𝑉02 =0 or ∇2 𝐸 - √𝑉02 𝜕𝑡 2 =0
𝜕𝑡 2

4. Derive the expression for total power flow in coaxial cable..

Power flow in coaxial cable:
Consider a coaxial cable of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ between conductor and a
steady current I flowing in the inner and outer conductors as shown in figure.

According to Ampere’s law the magneto motive force around any closed circles and the axis
of the cable is equal to the current enclosed.

∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝑰
 (𝟐𝝅𝒓)
∫ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝑯.

Where, r is the radius of the circle

𝑯. (𝟐𝝅𝒓) = 𝑰
𝐼
H= 𝟐𝝅𝒓

The electric field strength of coaxial cable is given by

𝐼
E=2𝜋𝑟

The electric field strength of co axial cable is given by

𝑣
E=
ln (𝑏/𝑎)

The pointing vector

𝑃=𝐸x𝐻
Since E and H are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of P as simply P= EH
The total power flow along the cable is given by the integration of the Poynting vector power any
cross sectional surface of area = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒅𝒓
W= ∫ 𝑬𝒙𝑯. 𝒅𝒔= ∫ 𝑬𝑯. 𝒅𝒔
𝒃 𝒗 𝐼
=∫𝒂 ( ) 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝒓 𝒍𝒏 (𝒃/𝒂) 2𝜋𝑟

𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑟
= (𝒍𝒏 (𝒃/𝒂)) ∫ 𝑟
𝑉𝐼
= (𝒍𝒏 (𝒃/𝒂)) [𝒍𝒏 𝒓]
𝑉𝐼
=(𝑙𝑛 (𝑏/𝑎)) [𝑙𝑛 𝑏 − 𝑙𝑛 𝑎]
𝑉𝐼
= 𝒍𝒏 (𝒃/𝒂)ln [b/a]

W=VI
This shows that the power flow along the cable is the product of the voltage and current.
5. Explain the following terms: Motional emf and transformer emf
Motional EMF:
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, a potential difference is setup across its ends.
This potential difference is called ‘motional emf’
Consider a wire of length ‘l’ moving across the magnetic field of induction B with velocity V
as shown in figure.
Force on free electron
Each free electron of the wire is moving within the wire and experience a force exerted by
magnetic field.
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐵 x 𝑣)
These electrons gradually accumulate at the end ‘a’ and leaving the other end ‘b’. in this way point
‘b’ acquires positive charge and point’a’ acquires equal negative charge. This accumulation of
electrons will continue till the force of electric field balances the force due to the motion of wire. Thus
a potential differential is setup point b and point a.
We know that
Potential difference = workdone per unit charge
Let the total charge flows through the wire is ‘q’ therefore
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
Potential difference =𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 = force x φm
𝑙
e= 𝑞(𝐵 x 𝑣) 𝑞 = 𝑙(𝐵 x 𝑣)

or
e= Bvl sinθ
this is called motional EMF.
Therefore, Motional emf = Bvl sinθ
If the wire is moving at right angle to the field, θ= 90o
Motional emf = B v l
Transformer emf:
In a transformer, source of alternating current is applied to the primary winding. Due to this,
the current in the primary winding produces alternating flux in the core of transformer. This alternating
flux gets linked with the secondary winding, and because of the phenomenon of mutual induction an
emf gets induced in the secondary winding. Magnitude of this induced emf can be found by using the
following emf equation of the transformer.
EMF EQUATION OF THE TRANSFORMER:
Let N1= Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Φm= Maximum flux in the core (in wb)
f= Frequency of the AC supply in Hz.

As shown in figure the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value φm from 0, it reaches to
the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e., in T/4 sec(where, T is time period of the sine
wave of the supply= 1/f).
𝑚𝜑 𝜑𝑚
Therefore , average rate of change of flux= 𝑻/𝟒 = 1
𝑓
4

Therefore. Average rate of change of flu 4 f 𝜑𝑚 (wb/s)

Now, induced emf per turn= rate of change of flux per turn.

Therefore, average emf per turn=4f𝜑𝑚 (volts)

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Now, we know, Form factor= 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn= Form factor x { }
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
As the flux varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11
Therefore,
RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1)=
RMS value of number of turns in
{ }x{ }
emf per turn primary winding
E1= 4.44f𝑁1 𝜑𝑚 ………………….(1)
Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as

E2= 4.44f𝑁2 𝜑𝑚 ………………….(2)

From the above equations (1) and (2),

𝐸1 𝐸
= 𝑁2 = 4.44f𝑁1 𝜑𝑚
𝑁1 2

This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf/number of turns is same for both
primary and secondary winding.
For an ideal transformer on no- load, E1= V1 and E2= V2

Where V1 = supply voltage of primary winding

V2 = Terminal voltage of secondary winding.
Voltage Transformation ratio(K)

𝐸1 𝐸
As derived above, = 𝑁2 = K
𝑁1 2

Where, K= constant

This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.