UNIT-III

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS:

If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field must
satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions. These conditions are helpful in
determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on the other side is known.
Electric Field Boundary Conditions: There are three types of boundary conditions for electric fields.
They are 1. Dielectric (εr1) and dielectric (εr2)
2. Conductor and dielectric
3. Conductor and free space

Dielectric (εr1) and dielectric (εr2) Boundary conditions:

Consider the E field existing in a region consisting of two different dielectrics characterized by ε1=ε0 εr1 and
ε2=ε0 εr2 as shown in Figure 1. E1 and E2 in media 1 and 2, can be decomposed respectively as
𝐄̅𝟏 = 𝐄̅𝟏𝐭 + 𝐄̅𝟏𝐧
𝐄̅𝟐 = 𝐄̅𝟐𝐭 + 𝐄̅𝟐𝐧

Figure 1: Dielectric-dielectric boundary, (a) Electric Field components (b) Electric Flux Density
components
Apply ∮ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ = 𝟎 to the closed path abcda of Fig, assuming that the path is very small with respect to the
variation of E. We obtain
𝐛 𝐜 𝐝 𝐚
∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ = 𝟎
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐝
∆𝒉 ∆𝒉 ∆𝒉 ∆𝒉
𝑬𝟏𝒕 ∆𝒘 − 𝑬𝟏𝒏 − 𝑬𝟐𝒏 − 𝑬𝟐𝒕 ∆𝒘 + 𝑬𝟐𝒏 + 𝑬𝟏𝒏 =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
As ∆h → 0, above equation becomes
𝑬𝟏𝒕 ∆𝒘 − 𝑬𝟐𝒕 ∆𝒘 = 𝟎
𝑬𝟏𝒕 ∆𝒘 = 𝑬𝟐𝒕 ∆𝒘

𝐄𝟏𝐭 = 𝐄𝟐𝐭
Therefore the tangential component of E is continuous across the boundary.
 𝐃𝟏𝐭 𝐃𝟐𝐭
=
𝛆𝐫𝟏 𝛆𝐫𝟐
Hence the tangential component of D is discontinuous across the boundary.

Similarly ̅=𝐃
𝐃 ̅𝐭 + 𝐃̅𝐧
̅ ̅
Apply ∮𝑺 𝑫 ∙ 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑸 to the Gaussian surface as shown in fig. and allowing ∆h → 0 gives
̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ + ∫
∫ 𝐃 ̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ = 𝛒𝐒 ∆𝐒
𝐃
𝐭𝐨𝐩 𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦
𝐃𝟏𝐧 ∆𝐒 − 𝐃𝟐𝐧 ∆𝐒 = 𝛒𝐒 ∆𝐒
𝐃𝟏𝐧 − 𝐃𝟐𝐧 = 𝛒𝐒
If no free charges exist at the interface ρs = 0 and above equation becomes
𝐃𝟏𝐧 = 𝐃𝟐𝐧
Therefore the normal component of D is continuous across the boundary.
𝛆𝐫𝟏 𝐄𝟏𝐧 = 𝛆𝐫𝟐 𝐄𝟐𝐧
Hence the normal component of E is discontinuous at the boundary.

The law of refraction:

If the fields make an angle θ with the normal to the

interface then
𝐄𝟏𝐭 = 𝐄𝟐𝐭
𝐄𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 = 𝐄𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐 ----------- (1)
𝐃𝟏𝐧 = 𝐃𝟐𝐧
𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜺𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 ---------- (2)

From above equations

Figure 2: Law of refraction

tan 𝜃1 tan 𝜃2
=
𝛆𝟏 𝛆𝟐

tan 𝜃1 𝛆𝐫𝟏
=
tan 𝜃2 𝛆𝐫𝟐

This is the law of refraction of the electric field at a boundary free of charge
Conductor and dielectric Boundary Conditions:
This is the case shown in Figure 3. The conductor is assumed to be perfect (i.e.σ→∞ and ρV→0) and E = 0
inside the perfect conductor.

Figure 3: Conductor-dielectric boundary, (a) E components (b) D components

Apply ∮ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ = 𝟎 to the closed path abcda of Fig, assuming that the path is very small with respect to the
variation of E. We obtain
𝐛 𝐜 𝐝 𝐚
∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐄̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ = 𝟎
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐝
∆𝒉 ∆𝒉 ∆𝒉 ∆𝒉
𝟎∆𝒘 + 𝟎 + 𝑬𝒏 − 𝑬𝒕 ∆𝒘 − 𝑬𝒏 −𝟎 =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
As ∆h → 0, above equation becomes
𝑬𝒕 = 𝟎
𝐄𝐭 = 𝟎
̅ ̅
Apply ∮𝑺 𝑫 ∙ 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑸 to the Gaussian surface as shown in fig. and allowing ∆h → 0 gives
̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ + ∫
∫ 𝐃 ̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ = 𝛒𝐒 ∆𝐒
𝐃
𝐭𝐨𝐩 𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦
𝐃𝐧 ∆𝐒 − 𝟎∆𝐒 = 𝛒𝐒 ∆𝐒
𝐃𝐧 = 𝛒𝐒
Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions:
This is a special case of the conductor-dielectric conditions and is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Conductor-free space boundary

The boundary conditions at the interface between a conductor and free space can be obtained by replacing
by εr=1 in the conductor-dielectric conditions.
𝐃𝐭 = 𝛆𝟎 𝐄𝐭 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐃𝐧 = 𝛆𝟎 𝐄𝐧 = 𝛒𝐒

Magnetic Boundary Conditions:

The magnetic boundary conditions are defined as the conditions that H (or B) field must satisfy at the
boundary between two different media.
Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1 and 2 characterized by μ1 and μ2 respectively as in
Figure 5.

Figure 5: Boundary conditions between two magnetic media: (a) for B, (b) for H.

̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ = 𝟎 to the Gaussian surface as shown in fig. and allowing ∆h → 0 gives

Apply ∮ 𝐁
̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ + ∫
∫ 𝐁 ̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ = 𝟎
𝐁
𝐭𝐨𝐩 𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦
𝐁𝟏𝐧 ∆𝐒 − 𝐁𝟐𝐧 ∆𝐒 = 𝟎
𝐁𝟏𝐧 − 𝐁𝟐𝐧 = 𝟎

𝐁𝟏𝐧 = 𝐁𝟐𝐧
Therefore the normal component of B is continuous at the boundary.
𝛍𝟏 𝐇𝟏𝐧 = 𝛍𝟐 𝐇𝟐𝐧
Hence the normal component of H is discontinuous at the boundary.

̅ . 𝐝𝐥̅ = 𝐈 to the closed path abcda of Fig, where surface current K on the boundary is
Similarly, we apply ∮ 𝐇
assumed normal to the path. We obtain
𝐛 𝐜 𝐝 𝐚
̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐇
∫ 𝐇 ̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐇
̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ + ∫ 𝐇
̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐥̅ = 𝐊∆𝐰
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐝
∆𝒉 ∆𝒉 ∆𝒉 ∆𝒉
𝑯𝟏𝒕 ∆𝒘 − 𝑯𝟏𝒏 − 𝑯𝟐𝒏 − 𝑯𝟐𝒕 ∆𝒘 + 𝑯𝟐𝒏 + 𝑯𝟏𝒏 = 𝐊∆𝐰
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
As ∆h → 0, above equation becomes
𝑯𝟏𝒕 ∆𝒘 − 𝑯𝟐𝒕 ∆𝒘 = 𝐊∆𝐰
𝑯𝟏𝒕 − 𝑯𝟐𝒕 = 𝑲
 (𝑯𝟏𝒕 − 𝑯𝟐𝒕 ) × 𝒂 ̅ 𝒏𝟏𝟐 = 𝑲̅
Where anl2 is a unit vector normal to the interface and is directed from medium 1 to medium 2.

If the boundary is free of current (K → 0) then the above equation becomes

𝑯𝟏𝐭 = 𝑯𝟐𝐭
Therefore the tangential component of H is continuous across the boundary.
𝐁𝟏𝐭 𝐁𝟐𝐭
=
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐
Hence the normal component of B is discontinuous across the boundary.

If the fields make an angle θ with the normal to the interface then
𝐁𝟏𝐧 = 𝐁𝟐𝐧
𝑩𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 = 𝑩𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 ---------- (1)
𝐁𝟏𝐭 𝐁𝟐𝐭
=
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐
𝐁𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 𝐁𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐
= ------------- (2)
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐
From above equations
tan 𝜃1 𝛍𝟏
=
tan 𝜃2 𝛍𝟐

Which is the law of refraction for magnetic flux lines at a boundary with no surface current.

Continuity equation:
According to the principle of charge conservation, the time rate of decrease of charge within a given
volume must be equal to the net outward current flow through the closed surface of the volume. Thus
current I coming out of the closed surface is

−𝐝𝐐
𝐈 = ∮ 𝐉̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ =
𝐝𝐭
where Q is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface.
According divergence theorem
∮ 𝐉̅ ∙ 𝐝𝐒̅ = ∫𝛁 ∙ 𝐉̅𝐝𝐯
𝐬 𝐯
−𝐝𝐐 𝐝 ∫𝐯 𝛒𝐯 𝐝𝐯 𝛛𝛒𝐯
=− = −∫ 𝐝𝐯
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐯 𝛛𝐭

𝛛𝛒𝐯
∫𝛁 ∙ 𝐉̅𝐝𝐯 = − ∫ 𝐝𝐯
𝐯 𝐯 𝛛𝐭
𝛛𝛒𝐯
𝛁 ∙ 𝐉̅ = −
𝛛𝐭
which is called the continuity of current equation.
Question: In a conducting medium do the static electric and magnetic fields both exist? Explain?

Ans: Consider an isolated conductor, such as shown in Figure 6(a). When an external electric field E e is
applied, all the positive free charges are moved along the applied field direction, while all the negative free
charges move in the opposite direction. Due to this an internal induced field Ei is cancelled by the externally
applied field Ee. The result is illustrated in Figure 6(b). This leads to an important property of a conductor:
A perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it, under static conditions.
That means E = 0, ρv = 0, Vab = 0 inside a conductor.

Figure 6: (a) An isolated conductor under the influence of an applied field; (b) a conductor has zero electric
field under static conditions.
A conductor is called an equipotential body, implying that the potential is the same everywhere
in the conductor. This is based on the fact that E = −∇V = 0.
we know that J=σE as σ→∞ the E→0.
The magnetic field does not exist in the conductor, since charge inside conductor is zero.

EM WAVE CHARACTERISTICS-I:

Introduction:
A wave is defined as a physical phenomenon. In general, a wave is a carrier of energy or information
from source to destination. A wave is a function of time as well as space. The waves consisting of electric
and magnetic fields are called EM waves. EM waves are produced by the time varying currents. EM waves
travel with the velocity of light. EM waves satisfy Maxwell equations. Radio waves, TV signals, radar
beams, and light rays are typical examples of EM waves. The existence of EM waves, predicted by
Maxwell's equations, was first investigated by Heinrich Hertz. After several calculations and experiments
Hertz succeeded in generating and detecting radio waves, which are sometimes called Hertzian waves in his
honor.
Maxwell's equations are solved to obtain EM wave equations in the following media:
1. Free space (σ= 0, ε = εo, μ=μo )
2. Lossless or perfect dielectrics (σ= 0, ε = εrεo, μ=μrμo and σ << ωε)
3. Lossy dielectrics (σ≠ 0, ε = εrεo, μ=μrμo)
4. Good conductors (σ= ∞, ε = εrεo, μ=μrμo and σ >> ωε)
Wave equation in free space or perfect dielectric:
Free space is characterized by σ= 0, ε = εo, μ=μo, ρv=0 and J=0.
The Maxwell's equations for free space are given by
∇. 𝑫 = 0 (1)
𝝏𝑩
∇×𝑬 = − (2)
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑫
∇×𝑯 = (3)
𝝏𝒕
∇. 𝑩 = 0 (4)
Apply curl on both sides of equation (2)
𝝏𝑯
∇ × ∇ × 𝑬 = −𝜇0 ∇ × (5)
𝝏𝒕
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑯
Using standard vector identity, LHS side is given by
∇ × ∇ × 𝑬 = ∇(∇. 𝑬) − ∇2 𝑬
From equation (1)
∇. 𝑫 = 𝜀0 ∇. 𝑬 = 0
∴ ∇ × ∇ × 𝑬 = −∇2 𝑬
From equation (5)
𝝏𝑯
−∇2 𝑬 = −𝜇0 ∇ ×
𝝏𝒕
2
𝝏
∴ ∇ 𝑬 = 𝜇0 (∇ × 𝑯)
𝝏𝒕
From equation (3)
𝝏𝑬
∇ × 𝑯 = 𝜀0
𝝏𝒕
2
𝜕2𝑬
∴ ∇ 𝑬 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2
𝜕𝑡
This is the wave equation in free space in terms of electric field
Similarly, the wave equation in free space in terms of magnetic field is given by
𝜕2𝑯
∇2 𝑯 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2
𝜕𝑡
The wave equations in phasor form are given by
∇2 𝑬 = −𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑬
∇2 𝑯 = −𝜔2 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑯
Wave equation in a conducting medium:
Conducting medium is characterized by σ ≠ 0, ε = εrεo, μ=μrμo, ρv= 0 and J ≠ 0.
The Maxwell's equations for conducting medium are given by
∇. 𝑫 = 0 (1)
𝝏𝑩
∇×𝑬 = − (2)
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑫
∇×𝑯=𝑱+ (3)
𝝏𝒕
∇. 𝑩 = 0 (4)
Apply curl on both sides of equation (2)
𝝏𝑯
∇ × ∇ × 𝑬 = −𝜇∇ × (5)
𝝏𝒕
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑩 = 𝜇𝑯
Using standard vector identity, LHS side is given by
 ∇ × ∇ × 𝑬 = ∇(∇. 𝑬) − ∇2 𝑬
From equation (1)
∇. 𝑫 = 𝜀∇. 𝑬 = 0
∴ ∇ × ∇ × 𝑬 = −∇2 𝑬
From equation (5)
𝝏𝑯
−∇2 𝑬 = −𝜇∇ ×
𝝏𝒕
𝝏
∴ ∇2 𝑬 = 𝜇 (∇ × 𝑯)
𝝏𝒕
From equation (3)
𝝏𝑫
∇ × 𝑯 = 𝜎𝑬 +
𝝏𝒕
𝝏 𝝏𝑫
∇2 𝑬 = 𝜇 (𝜎𝑬 + )
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
𝜕𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
∴ ∇2 𝑬 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇𝜀 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
This is the wave equation in conducting medium in terms of electric field
Similarly, the wave equation in conducting medium in terms of magnetic field is given by
2
𝜕𝑯 𝜕2𝑯
∇ 𝑯 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇𝜀 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The wave equations in phasor form are given by
∇2 𝑬 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )𝑬
∇2 𝑯 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )𝑯
The propagation constant is γ = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
Hence the above equations are given by
∇2 𝐄 = γ𝟐 𝐄
∇2 𝐇 = γ𝟐 𝐇
These equations are called Helmholtz equations.

Uniform plane wave:

An EM wave propagating in z - direction is said to be a uniform plane wave if its electric and magnetic
fields are independent of x and y – directions.
The following are the properties of uniform plane wave:
1. A uniform plane wave propagating in z – direction has no z – component of electric and magnetic fields
that means Ez = 0 and Hz = 0.
2. The electric and magnetic fields of EM wave are always perpendicular to each other.
3. The electric and magnetic fields are independent of x and y – directions therefore
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑯
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
2 2
𝜕 𝑬 𝜕 𝑯
2
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
4. The directions of electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to direction of wave propagation.
 Figure 7: EM wave
Proof:
The uniform plane wave equation in free space is given by
2
𝜕2𝑬
∇ 𝑬 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 (1)
𝜕𝑡
2 2 2
𝜕 𝑬 𝜕 𝑬 𝜕 𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
+ + = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡
As per definition of uniform plane wave, the electric and magnetic fields are independent of x and y –
directions, therefore
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Hence equation (1) becomes
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
= 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 (2)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡
Where
𝑬 = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎̅𝑧
Equating the respective components on both sides of equation (2), we get
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
= 𝜇0 𝜀0 (3)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦
= 𝜇 𝜀
0 0 (4)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧
= 𝜇 𝜀
0 0 (5)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
In free space
∇. 𝐸 = 0
Therefore
𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Electric field is independent of x and y – directions, therefore
 𝜕𝐸𝑧
=0 (6)
𝜕𝑧
Substitute equation (6) in equation (5), we get
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧
=0
𝜕𝑡 2
This means that Ez should have one of the following solutions
1. Ez= 0
2. Ez= k (constant with time)
3. Ez= kt (i.e increases uniformly with time)
The solutions 2 and 3 will not be a part of wave motion
Therefore Ez= 0
Similarly Hz= 0
This means that the components of electric and magnetic fields of uniform plane wave in the direction of
propagation are zero.
General solution of uniform plane wave:
The wave equation in free space is
𝜕2𝑬
∇2 𝑬 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
+ + = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡
As per definition of uniform plane wave, the electric and magnetic fields are independent of x and y –
directions, therefore
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Hence equation (1) becomes
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
= 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 (2)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡
The above equation is a second order differential equation.
Equating the respective components on both sides of equation (2) and substituting E z=0, we get
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
= 𝜇0 𝜀0 (3)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦
= 𝜇 𝜀
0 0 (4)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
The general solution of the equation (2) is given by
𝑬 = 𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑣0 𝑡)
Where f1 and f2 are functions of 𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡 and 𝑧 + 𝑣0 𝑡 respectively
1
Where 𝑣0 = 𝜇 𝜀 is velocity of wave propagation
√ 0 0
Z is direction of propagation
𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡) represents a forward wave
𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑣0 𝑡) represents a reflected wave
The reflected wave is present when there is a conductor which acts as a reflector, otherwise it is absent. As
we are considering free space propagation, electric field will have only forward wave.
∴ 𝑬 = 𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)
This is solution of the uniform plane wave in free space.
The behavior of the wave is represented as shown in Figure 8.
 Figure 8: Wave along z-direction
Relation between E and H in uniform plane wave:
The relation between E and H is
𝑬
| | = 120𝜋Ω ≈ 377Ω
𝑯
Proof:
The two Maxwell's equations for free space are given by
𝝏𝑯
∇ × 𝑬 = −𝜇0 (1)
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝑬
∇ × 𝑯 = 𝜀0 (2)
𝝏𝒕
Expand LHS of equation (2)
a̅x a̅y a̅ z
∂ ∂ ∂ 𝝏𝑬
|| || = 𝜀0
∂x ∂y ∂z 𝝏𝒕
Hx Hy Hz

For a uniform plane wave traveling in the Z-direction, the electric and magnetic fields are independent of x
and y – directions, and also electric and magnetic fields have no z component.
Hence the above becomes

𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦

− 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦 = 𝜀0 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝜀0 𝑎̅ (3)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑦
Similarly from equation (1), we get

𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑦

− 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦 = −𝜇0 𝑎̅𝑥 − 𝜇0 𝑎̅ (4)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑦
Equating the respective components, we get

𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑥
− = 𝜀0 (5)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦
= 𝜀0 (6)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥
= 𝜇0 (7)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑦
= −𝜇0 (8)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Now if 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)
1
Where 𝑣0 =
√𝜇0 𝜀0

𝜕𝐸𝑥
= −𝑣0 𝑓 | (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡) (9)
𝜕𝑡
Substituting equation (9) in equation (5), we get

𝜕𝐻𝑦
= 𝜀0 𝑣0 𝑓 | (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)
𝜕𝑧
Integrate the above equation with respect to Z, we get

𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = √ ∫ 𝑓 | (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)𝑑𝑧 + 𝐾
𝜇0

𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = √ 𝑓(𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡) + 𝐾
𝜇0

𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = √ 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐾
𝜇0

As the constant K can’t be a part of wave motion, hence we can put K=0

𝜀0
𝐻𝑦 = √ 𝐸𝑥
𝜇0

𝐸𝑥 𝜇0
=√
𝐻𝑦 𝜀0

Similarly if we take 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)

𝜕𝐸𝑦
= −𝑣0 𝑓 | (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡) (10)
𝜕𝑡
Substituting equation (10) in equation (6), we get

𝜕𝐻𝑥
= −𝜀0 𝑣0 𝑓 | (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)
𝜕𝑧
Integrate the above equation with respect to Z, we get
 𝜀0
𝐻𝑥 = −√ ∫ 𝑓 | (𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)𝑑𝑧
𝜇0

𝜀0
𝐻𝑥 = −√ 𝑓(𝑧 − 𝑣0 𝑡)
𝜇0

𝜀0
𝐻𝑥 = −√ 𝐸𝑦
𝜇0

𝐸𝑦 𝜇0
= −√
𝐻𝑥 𝜀0

𝐸 𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 𝜇0
=√ 2 2
=√
𝐻 𝐻𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 𝜀0

𝐸 𝜇0
= √ = 120𝜋Ω = 377Ω
𝐻 𝜀0

The ratio of electric and magnetic fields is called intrinsic impedance (characteristic impedance) and is
denoted by η

𝐸 𝜇
𝜂= =√
𝐻 𝜀

For free space

𝐸 𝜇0
𝜂= = √ = 120𝜋Ω = 377Ω
𝐻 𝜀0

Proof of transverse nature of electric and magnetic fields:

Take

𝑬 ∙ 𝑯 = 𝐸𝑥 𝐻𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝐻𝑦

𝑬 ∙ 𝑯 = 𝜂𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑥 − 𝜂𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦

𝑬∙𝑯 = 𝟎

The electric field is perpendicular to Magnetic field since their dot product is zero.
Sinusoidal time varying field:

In practice electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally. It is well known that any periodic variations can
be described in terms of sinusoidal variations with fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
Therefore fields can be represented by
E=E0 cosωt ----(a)
Or
E=E0 sinωt ----(b)
Where ω=2πf and E0 is the maximum field strength
The time varying field 𝐸̃ (𝑟, 𝑡) is related to phasor field E(r) as
𝐸̃ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 (𝑟)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
Or
𝐸̃ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚[𝐸 (𝑟)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
For understanding phasor notation, consider E x component
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸𝑥 (𝑟)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
Where
𝐸𝑥 (𝑟) = |𝐸𝑥 |𝑒 𝑗𝜙
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[|𝐸𝑥 |𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) ]
The relation between time varying and phasor quantities is as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Relation between time-varying and phasor quantities

Wave propagation in a lossless medium or perfect dielectric:

The wave equation in phasor form for perfect dielectric is

∇2 𝑬 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝑬
𝜕 𝑬 𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬
2

2
+ 2 + 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝑬
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For a uniform plane wave the above equation becomes
𝜕2𝑬
= −𝛽 2 𝑬
𝜕𝑧 2
Where phase shift constant 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀
𝜕2𝑬
+𝛽 2 𝑬 = 0 (1)
𝜕𝑧 2
Let the electric field be in the x-direction with component Ex, then the equation (1) becomes
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
+ 𝛽 2 𝐸𝑥 = 0 (2)
𝜕𝑧 2

The equation (2) is a second order differential equation and the solution of equation (2) is given by
𝐸𝑥 (𝑧) = 𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 (3)
Where E+ and E- are arbitrary constants which can be determined from boundary conditions
The corresponding time-varying field is written as
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸𝑥 (𝑧)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ] (4)
Substitute equation (3) in equation (4), we get
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[(𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 + 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝑧) ]
By taking real value
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 𝐸 − cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧)
The above equation represents the sum of two waves propagating in opposite directions. E + represents the
electric field component when wave is propagating in the positive z-direction and E- represents the electric
field component when wave is propagating in the negative z-direction.

If the wave is propagating in free space without bounds, it travels in forward direction only and the electric
field is given by
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑉/𝑚
Similarly, the magnetic field in the y direction is given by
̃𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐻 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 𝐻 − cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧)
𝐻
If the wave travels only in forward direction,
𝐻̃𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐻 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝐴/𝑚
Wave propagation in a conducting medium:
The wave equation in phasor form in a conducting medium is
∇2 𝑬 = 𝛾 2 𝑬
Where the propagation constant is γ = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
α= attenuation constant and β= phase shift constant

𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬 𝜕2𝑬

+ + = 𝛾2𝑬
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
For a uniform plane wave the above equation becomes
𝜕2𝑬
= 𝛾2𝑬
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕2𝑬
− 𝛾 2𝑬 = 0 (1)
𝜕𝑧 2
Let the electric field be in x direction, then the equation (1) becomes
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
− 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥 = 0 (2)
𝜕𝑧 2
The equation (2) is a second order differential equation and the solution of equation (1) is given by
𝐸𝑥 (𝑧) = 𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 (3)
Where E+ and E- are arbitrary constants which can be determined from boundary conditions
The corresponding time-varying field is written as
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸𝑥 (𝑧)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[(𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 + 𝑒 (𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛾𝑧) + 𝐸 − 𝑒 (𝑗𝜔𝑡+𝛾𝑧) ]
 𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 + 𝑒 (𝑗𝜔𝑡−𝛼𝑧−𝑗𝛽𝑧) + 𝐸 − 𝑒 (𝑗𝜔𝑡+𝛼𝑧+𝑗𝛽𝑧) ]

𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝑧) ]

By taking real value
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 𝐸 − 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧)
The above equation represents the sum of two waves propagating in opposite directions. E + represents the
electric field component when wave is propagating in the positive z-direction and E- represents the electric
field component when wave is propagating in the negative z-direction.

If the wave is propagating in conducting medium without bounds, it travels in forward direction only and
the electric field is given by
𝐸̃𝑥 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑉/𝑚
This is the equation of a wave travelling in a z-direction and attenuated by a factor 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧
Similarly the magnetic field is given by
𝐻̃𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐻+ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝐴/𝑚

Figure 10: Wave propagation in conducting medium

Phase velocity:
The velocity at which the constant phase of wave travels is called phase velocity.
For uniform plane wave
𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Differentiate the above equation with respect to time, we get
𝑑𝑧 𝜔
=
𝑑𝑡 𝛽
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀
The phase velocity of the wave is
𝑑𝑧 𝜔
𝜐𝑝 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝛽
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀
𝜔 1
𝜐𝑝 = = 𝑚/𝑠
𝛽 √𝜇𝜀
For free space
1
𝜐𝑝 = = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
√𝜇0 𝜀0
Wave velocity:
The velocity at which the energy of a wave propagates is called wave velocity
Wavelength:
Wavelength λ is defined as the distance travelled by the sinusoidal wave through a full cycle of 2π radians.
2𝜋
𝜆=
𝛽
Frequency:
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Velocity of propagation
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
Expressions for α and β for a conducting medium:
Consider a wave propagating in lossy conducting medium. The propagation constant is
γ = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
Square on the both sides of above equation
γ2 = (𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 )2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 + 2𝑗𝛼𝛽 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎
Equate real terms on both sides
𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 (1)
Take magnitude of propagation constant
|γ| = √𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = √√𝜔 4 𝜇2 𝜀 2 + 𝜔 2 𝜇2 𝜎 2
Take square on both sides
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = √𝜔 4 𝜇2 𝜀 2 + 𝜔 2 𝜇2 𝜎 2
𝜎2
𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 √1 +
2 2 2
(2)
𝜔2 𝜀 2
Add equations (1) and (2), we get
𝜎2
2𝛼 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀√1 + − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀
𝜔2 𝜀 2

𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛼2 = [√1 + 2 2 − 1]
2 𝜔 𝜀

𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛼=𝜔 √ √
[ 1 + 2 2 − 1]
2 𝜔 𝜀

Attenuation α represents the rate at which the wave amplitude reduces as it propagates from one place to
another. Its units are NP/m. 1NP = 8.686 dB.
Similarly subtract equation (1) from equation (2), we get

𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√1 + 2 2 + 1]
2 𝜔 𝜀

The units of phase shift constant are rad/m.

Conductors and dielectrics:
In electromagnetics, the materials are divided roughly into two classes.
1. Conductors 2. Dielectrics
Consider Maxwell’s equation ∇ × 𝑯 = 𝜎𝑬 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑬
The ratio of magnitude of conduction current density and displacement current density is given by
𝑱𝐶 𝜎
| |= =𝐷
𝑱𝐷 𝜔𝜀
D is the dissipation factor
𝜎
If 𝜔𝜀 ≫ 1, the material is a good conductor.
𝜎
If 𝜔𝜀 ≪ 1, the material is a good dielectric.
𝜎
= 1 is dividing line between good conductor and good dielectric.
𝜔𝜀
The phasor representation of JC and JD is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Phasor representation of JC and JD

From the figure 11, it is clear that JD leads JC by 90⸰.
The angle θ by which the JD leads total current is given by
𝜎
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝜔𝜀
𝜎
tan 𝜃 =
𝜔𝜀
𝜎
The term 𝜔𝜀 is also called loss tangent and the angle θ is called loss angle.
Wave propagation in good conductor:
Consider a wave propagating in a good conductor. For good conductor
𝜎
≫1
𝜔𝜀
The propagation constant is
γ = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
𝑗𝜔𝜀
γ = √𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎 √(1 + )
𝜎
For good conductor
𝜔𝜀
≪1
𝜎

γ = √𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎
γ = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝜔𝜇𝜎∠45°
1 1
γ = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √𝜔𝜇𝜎 ( + 𝑗 )
√2 √2
 𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎
𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = (√ + 𝑗√ )
2 2
𝜔𝜇𝜎
𝛼=𝛽=√
2
The phase velocity is
𝜔
𝜐𝑝 =
𝛽
2𝜔
𝜐𝑝 = √
𝜇𝜎
The intrinsic impedance is
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√ 𝜔𝜀
𝜎 (1 + 𝑗 )
𝜎
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√
𝜎

Wave propagation in good dielectrics:

Consider a wave propagating in a good dielectric medium. For good dielectrics
𝜎
≪1
𝜔𝜀
The attenuation constant α is given by

𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛼 = 𝜔 √ [√1 + 2 2 − 1] (1)
2 𝜔 𝜀
1⁄ 𝑥
According to binomial expression (1 + 𝑥 ) 𝑛 ≈ [1 + 𝑛], when 𝑥 ≪ 1
1⁄
𝜎2 2 𝜎2
(1 + 2 2 ) ≈1+
𝜔 𝜀 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2
Substitute this in equation (1), we get
𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [1 + − 1]
2 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2

𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [ 2 2 ]
2 2𝜔 𝜀

𝜎 𝜇
𝛼= √
2 𝜀
The phase constant is

𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛽 = 𝜔 √ [√1 + 2 2 + 1] (2)
2 𝜔 𝜀
According to binomial expression
1⁄
𝜎2 2 𝜎2
(1 + 2 2 ) ≈1+
𝜔 𝜀 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2
Substitute this in equation (2), we get
𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [1 + + 1]
2 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2

𝜇𝜀 𝜎2
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [2 + ]
2 2𝜔 2 𝜀 2

𝜎2
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀 [1 + ]
4𝜔 2 𝜀 2
1⁄
𝜎2 2
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀 [1 + ]
4𝜔 2 𝜀 2
Once again apply binomial expression
𝜎2
𝛽 = 𝜔 √𝜇𝜀 [1 + ]
8𝜔 2 𝜀 2
The phase velocity is
𝜔
𝜐𝑝 =
𝛽
𝜔
𝜐𝑝 =
𝜎2
𝜔√𝜇𝜀 [1 + ]
8𝜔 2 𝜀 2
−1
1 𝜎2
𝜐𝑝 = [1 + ]
√𝜇𝜀 8𝜔 2 𝜀 2
According to binomial expression
1 𝜎2
𝜐𝑝 = [1 − ]
√𝜇𝜀 8𝜔 2 𝜀 2
The intrinsic impedance is
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀

𝑗𝜔𝜇 1
𝜂=√ [ ]
𝑗𝜔𝜀 1 + 𝜎
𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝜇 𝜎 −1⁄2
𝜂 = √ [1 − 𝑗 ]
𝜀 𝜔𝜀
According to binomial expression
𝜇 𝜎
𝜂 = √ [1 + 𝑗 ]
𝜀 2𝜔𝜀
Depth of penetration or skin depth:
When a wave propagates through a conducting medium, it is attenuated. Skin depth is defined as the depth
at which the wave has been attenuated to 1/e or approximately 37 % of its maximum value. It is denoted by
δ.
1 1
𝛿= =
𝛼 √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
Proof:
Consider a wave propagating through a conducting medium in the z direction.
We know that the amplitude of electric field attenuates approximately exponentially with attenuation
constant α. That is,
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧
Where E0 is maximum amplitude
At a distance equal to skin depth, z = δ, electric field has been attenuated to 1/ e times.
∴ 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝛿 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −1
𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝛿 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −1
𝑒 −𝛼𝛿 = 𝑒 −1
𝛼𝛿 = 1
Skin depth is
1
𝛿=
𝛼
For a conducting medium
𝜔𝜇𝜎
𝛼=√ = √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
2
1
∴ 𝛿=
√𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎

The phenomenon whereby field intensity in a conductor rapidly decreases is known as skin effect. Due to
skin effect, the fields are almost confined to a very thin sheet at the surface of the conductor.

Figure 12: Skin depth in a conductor

Polarization:
The polarization of a uniform plane wave refers to the time-varying behavior of the electric field strength
vector at some fixed point in space.
There are three types of polarizations
1. Linear polarization 2. Circular polarization 3. Elliptical polarization

Figure 13: (a) Linear polarization

Linear polarization:
Consider a uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, E and H vectors lying in x-y plane.
If Ey=0 and only Ex is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the x direction. Similarly E x=0 and only Ey
is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y direction.
𝐸
If both Ex and Ey are present and are in phase, the resultant electric field makes an angle tan−1 (𝐸𝑦 ) with x
𝑥
axis.
If the electric field vector is directed always along the line, then the wave is said to linearly polarized. The
Figure 13(a) shows linear polarization.
Circular polarization:
If Ex and Ey have equal magnitudes and a 90 ͦ phase difference, the locus of the resultant electric field is a
circle and the wave is said to be circularly polarized.

Figure 13: (b) Circular polarization

Let Ex and Ey has the equal magnitude Ea and a 90 ͦ phase difference between them.
The resultant electric field in vector form is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑗𝐸𝑎 𝑎̅𝑦
The corresponding time varying electric field is
𝐸̃ (0, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝐸̃ (0, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[(𝐸𝑎 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑗𝐸𝑎 𝑎̅𝑦 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
Take real value
𝐸̃ (0, 𝑡) = 𝐸𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̅𝑥 − 𝐸𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̅𝑦
The corresponding components are
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑦 = −𝐸𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡
Square and add the above equations, we get
𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 = 𝐸𝑎2
This equation shows that the locus of the resultant electric field traces out a circle of radius E a and the wave
is said to be circularly polarized. It is shown in Figure 13(b).
If the phase difference between Ex and Ey is + 90 ͦ, the rotation of circle is in clockwise direction and the
wave is left circularly polarized.
If the phase difference between Ex and Ey is - 90 ,ͦ the rotation of circle is in counter clockwise direction and
the wave is right circularly polarized.

Elliptical polarization:
If Ex and Ey have different magnitudes and a 90 ͦ phase difference, the locus of the resultant electric field is a
ellipse and the wave is said to be elliptically polarized.

Figure 13: (c) Elliptical polarization

Let Ex has the magnitude Ea and Ey has the magnitude Eb and a 90 ͦ phase difference between them.
The resultant electric field in vector form is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑗𝐸𝑏 𝑎̅𝑦
The corresponding time varying electric field is
𝐸̃ (0, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[𝐸𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝐸̃ (0, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒[(𝐸𝑎 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑗𝐸𝑏 𝑎̅𝑦 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
Take real value
𝐸̃ (0, 𝑡) = 𝐸𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̅𝑥 − 𝐸𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎̅𝑦
The corresponding components are
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑦 = −𝐸𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡
Then
𝐸𝑥
= cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑎
𝐸𝑦
= − sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑏

Square and add the above equations, we get

𝐸𝑥2 𝐸𝑦2
+ =1
𝐸𝑎2 𝐸𝑏2
This equation shows that the locus of the resultant electric field traces out an ellipse and the wave is said to
be elliptically polarized. It is shown in Figure 13(c).