Vector Calculus

Course- Field Theory (ENEL2FT) (2023)

Course Lecturer- Dr. P. Kumar
Email- kumarp@ukzn.ac.za
1
 Differential length, area and volume
⇒In the study of electromagnetic fields, we have to work with line, surface, and volume
integrals.
⇒These involve differential lengths, surfaces, and volumes obtained by incrementing the
coordinates by infinitesimal amounts.

Differential length in Cartesian coordinates

⇒Since in the Cartesian coordinate system the three coordinates represent lengths, the
differential length elements obtained by incrementing one coordinate at a time, keeping the
other two constant, are 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥,
� 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦� and 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧̂ for the 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, and 𝑧𝑧 coordinates, respectively.
P(x,y,z)
⇒Differential displacement 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
z
Q(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz)
𝑟𝑟1
𝑟𝑟2
y

2
x
 Differential length, area and volume (cont.)
Differential surface in Cartesian coordinates
⇒In the evaluation of surface integrals, it is
convenient to define a differential surface
vector 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 whose magnitude is the area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and whose direction is normal to the
differential surface.

⇒The differential areas in 𝑥𝑥=constant plane,

𝑦𝑦=constant plane and 𝑧𝑧=constant plane can
be calculated as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦� × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥� = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦�
Fig. Differential normal areas in rectangular coordinate
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥� × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦� = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ system [1]

⇒Differential normal area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥� +

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂
3
 Differential length, area and volume (cont.)
Differential volume in Cartesian coordinates
• Three different length vectors, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2, and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3 originating at a point define a differential volume 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which is that of the parallelepiped having 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2, and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3 as three of its contiguous edges, as shown
below.
dv
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1
• It can be seen that:
dv = (base area of parallelepiped ).(height of parallelepiped )
  
     dl3 .dl1 xdl2   
ˆ
= dl1 xdl2 dl3 .in = dl1 xdl2   = dl3 .dl1 xdl2
dl1 xdl2
  
⇒ dv = dl1.dl2 xdl3

=> Differential volume for rectangular coordinates 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥.

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦� × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4
 Differential length, area and volume (cont.)
In Cylindrical coordinates
⇒Differential displacement
� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 = 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌� + 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅∅

⇒Differential normal area in various planes:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅∅ � × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ = 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌�
�
= 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌� × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂ = 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧∅
� = 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑧𝑧̂
= 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌� × 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅∅

⇒Differential volume
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌. � × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧)̂ = 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� (𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑∅∅
Fig. Differential elements in cylindrical coordinate
system [2]
5
 Differential length, area and volume (cont.)
In Spherical coordinates
⇒Differential displacement:
�
𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟̂ + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑∅∅

⇒Differential normal area in various planes:

� = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑∅𝑟𝑟̂
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� × 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑∅∅
� = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑∅𝜃𝜃�
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟̂ × 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑∅∅
�
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟̂ × 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� = r𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃∅

⇒Differential volume:
� = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑∅
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟.̂ (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� × 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑∅∅) Fig. Differential elements in spherical
coordinate system [1]
6
 Line, surface and volume integrals
⇒A line integral is the integral of the tangential component of a vector
𝐴𝐴⃗ along curve 𝐿𝐿 and is given by:
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 = ∫𝑏𝑏 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∫𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴. 𝑎𝑎
If the path is closed(it defines an open surface)=> contour integral
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∮𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴.
⇒Surface integral of vector 𝐴𝐴⃗ along smooth surface 𝑆𝑆 or flux of 𝐴𝐴⃗
through 𝑆𝑆 is defined as
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆 Fig. Path of integration of vector field A [1]
𝜓𝜓 = � 𝐴𝐴.
𝑆𝑆
For a closed surface (defining volume)
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑆𝑆
𝜓𝜓 = � 𝐴𝐴.
𝑆𝑆
Which is referred as net outward flux of 𝐴𝐴⃗ from 𝑆𝑆.
⇒A volume integral of the scalar 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 over the volume 𝑣𝑣 is defined as
∫𝑉𝑉 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
7
Fig. The flux of a vector field A through surface S [1]
 Line, surface and volume integrals (cont.)
Example: Calculate the line integral of the function 𝒗𝒗 = 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥� + 2𝑥𝑥(𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑦𝑦� from the point a = (1, 1, 0)
to the point b = (2, 2, 0), along the paths (1) and (2) in Fig. What is ∮ 𝒗𝒗. 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 for the loop that goes from
a to b along (1) and returns to a along (2)?

8
 Line, surface and volume integrals (cont.)
Solution: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧̂
Path (1)=Path(i)+Path(ii)
2
� 𝑦𝑦 = 1, 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, so ∫ 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
Path (i): 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥,
Path (ii): 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦,
� x= 2, 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑥𝑥(𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4(𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, so
∫ 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4 ∫1 (𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10
𝑏𝑏
⇒∫𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1 + 10 = 11

Path(2): 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0; => 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦;
�
=>𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏 2
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10
=>∫𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∫1
For the loop that goes out (1) and back(2), then∮ 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 11 − 10 = 1

9
 Del operator
⇒The del operator ‘𝜵𝜵’ is the vector differential operator also known as the gradient
operator.
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝜵𝜵 = 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦+ � 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
⇒The gradient of a scalar 𝑉𝑉 is written as 𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉
⇒The divergence of a vector 𝑨𝑨 is denoted as 𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨
⇒The curl of a vector 𝑨𝑨 is written as 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨
⇒The Laplacian of a scalar 𝑉𝑉 is written as 𝜵𝜵2 𝑉𝑉
⇒In cylindrical coordinates (using transformation equations):
𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝜵𝜵 = 𝜌𝜌� + �
∅ + 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒In spherical coordinates (using transformation equations):
𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕
𝜵𝜵 = 𝑟𝑟̂ + �
𝜃𝜃 + �
∅
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕 10
 Gradient of a scalar
⇒The gradient of a scalar field 𝑉𝑉 is the vector that represents the maximum space rate of
increase of 𝑉𝑉.
⇒In rectangular coordinates
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉 = 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦+
� 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒In cylindrical coordinates
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 1 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉 = 𝜌𝜌̂ + � + 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 𝑧𝑧̂
∅
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

⇒In spherical coordinates

𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 1 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 1 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉 = 𝑟𝑟̂ + 𝜃𝜃̂ + �
∅
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒The magnitude of 𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉 is equal to the maximum rate of change in 𝑉𝑉 per unit distance.
⇒𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉 points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in 𝑉𝑉.
⇒If 𝑨𝑨 = 𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉, 𝑉𝑉 is said to be scalar potential of 𝑨𝑨.
11
 Divergence of a vector
⇒The divergence of a vector 𝑨𝑨 at point 𝑃𝑃 is the net outward flux per unit volume as the volume
shrinks about point 𝑃𝑃.

⇒Mathematically, it is defined as
∮𝑆𝑆 𝑨𝑨.𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑨𝑨 = 𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨 = lim
∆𝑣𝑣→0 ∆𝑣𝑣

⇒In rectangular coordinates

𝜕𝜕𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨= + +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

⇒In cylindrical coordinates Fig. Divergence of a vector field at 𝑃𝑃 (a) positive (b) negative,
1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝐴𝐴∅ 𝜕𝜕𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨= 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝜌𝜌 + + (c) zero[1]
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

⇒In spherical coordinates

1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝐴𝐴∅
𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 + 𝐴𝐴𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 12
𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕
 Divergence of a vector (cont.)
Example:
Calculate the divergence of the vectors 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦� + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧,̂ 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 = 𝑧𝑧̂ and 𝑨𝑨𝟑𝟑 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧.̂

13
 Divergence of a vector (cont.)
Solution:
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴1 = x + y + z =1+1+1=3
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴2 = 0 + 0 + 1 = 0 + 0 + 0 =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴3 = 0 + 0 + z =0+0+1=1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

14
 Divergence theorem
It can be concluded from the definition of divergence that
∮𝑆𝑆 𝑨𝑨. 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅=∮𝑣𝑣 𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The above expression is known as ‘Divergence theorem’ or ‘Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem’.
=> The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field 𝑨𝑨 through the
closed surface 𝑆𝑆 is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of 𝑨𝑨.

Fig. Volume v enclosed by surface S[1] 15

 Divergence theorem (cont.)
Example: Check the divergence theorem using the function 𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥� + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 2 𝑦𝑦� +
(2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑧𝑧̂ and the unit cube situated at the origin in Fig.

16
 Divergence theorem (cont.)
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∮ ∇. 𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Solution: divergence theorem ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. ⃗
𝑣𝑣
LHS=∮ 𝐴𝐴.⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑆𝑆
1 1 2 1
⃗
(i) ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∫0 ∫0 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
3
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=-∫1 ∫1 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 1
(ii) ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. 0 0 3
1 1
(iii) ∮ 𝐴𝐴.⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∫ ∫ 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4
𝑆𝑆 0 0 3 RHS=∮𝑣𝑣 ∇. 𝐴𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=-∫1 ∫1 𝑧𝑧 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 1
(iv) ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. 𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴 = 0 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦
0 0 3
1 1
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∫ ∫ 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 1
(v) ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. 1 1 1
0 0 ∮𝑣𝑣 ∇. 𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∫0 ∫0 ∫0 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=-∫1 ∫1 0𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
(vi) ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. 1 1 1
0 0 =2∫0 ∫0 + 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=> LHS=∮𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝐴. ⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=1 − 1+4 − 1+1+0=2 2
3 3 3 3 1
=2∫0 1𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=2
=> LHS=RHS 17
 Curl of a vector
⇒The curl of a vector 𝑨𝑨 is an axial (rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of 𝑨𝑨 per unit area as the
area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the
circulation maximum.
∮𝐿𝐿 𝑨𝑨.𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
⇒𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑨𝑨 = lim ∆𝑆𝑆
𝑛𝑛�
∆𝑠𝑠→0
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
⇒Where ∆𝑆𝑆 is bounded by the curve 𝐿𝐿 and 𝑛𝑛� is the unit vector normal to the surface ∆𝑆𝑆 and is determined using the right
hand rule.
𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙 𝒂𝒂𝒚𝒚 𝒂𝒂𝒛𝒛
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
⇒𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(rectangular coordinates)
𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
𝒂𝒂𝝆𝝆 𝜌𝜌𝒂𝒂∅ 𝒂𝒂𝒛𝒛
1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
⇒𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 = (cylindrical coordinates)
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐴𝐴𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴∅ 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧
𝒂𝒂𝒓𝒓 𝑟𝑟𝒂𝒂𝜽𝜽 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝒂𝒂∅
1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
⇒𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 = (spherical coordinates) Fig. Illustration of a curl (a) curl at 𝑃𝑃 points out
𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴∅ of the page, (b) curl at 𝑃𝑃 is zero [1]
=> The divergence of the curl of a vector is zero [𝜵𝜵. (𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨) = 0].
⇒The curl of the gradient of a scalar is zero [𝜵𝜵 × (𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉) = 0].
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 Curl of a vector (cont.)
Example:
Calculate the curls of vectors 𝐴𝐴1 = −𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥� + 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦� and 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦.
�

19
 Curl of a vector (cont.)
Solution:
𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇ × 𝐴𝐴1 = = 2𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
−𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 0

𝑥𝑥� 𝑦𝑦� 𝑧𝑧̂

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇ × 𝐴𝐴2 = = 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
0 𝑥𝑥 0
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 Stoke’s theorem
• It can be concluded from the definition of curl that
∮𝐿𝐿 𝑨𝑨. 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅=∮𝑆𝑆 (𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
• The above expression is known as ‘Stoke’s theorem.
• Stoke’s theorem states that line integral of a vector around a closed path is equal
to the surface integral of its curl (component along the normal to the surface)
over the surface bounded by the path.

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 Second derivatives
⇒Divergence of gradient: 𝜵𝜵. 𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉
⇒Curl of gradient: 𝜵𝜵 × (𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉)
⇒Gradient of divergence: 𝜵𝜵 𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨
⇒Divergence of curl: 𝜵𝜵. 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨
⇒Curl of curl: 𝜵𝜵 × 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨
(where 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑨𝑨 are scalar and vector, respectively.)

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 Laplacian of a scalar
• The Laplacian operator is the composite of gradient and divergence operators.
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜵𝜵. 𝜵𝜵𝑉𝑉 = 𝛻𝛻 2 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦+
� 𝑧𝑧̂ . 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦+
� 𝑧𝑧̂
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

2 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉

𝛻𝛻 𝑉𝑉= 2 + + (rectangular coordinates)
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2

1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉

𝛻𝛻 2 𝑉𝑉= 𝜌𝜌 + 2 2+ 2 (cylindrical coordinates)
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

2 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉

𝛻𝛻 𝑉𝑉= 2 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + (spherical coordinates)
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕∅2

⇒A scalar field 𝑉𝑉 is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian is zero i.e. 𝛻𝛻 2 𝑉𝑉=0. (is
known as Laplacian equation)
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 Classification of vector fields
• A vector field is uniquely characterized by its divergence and curl.
• A vector field 𝑨𝑨 is said to be solenoidal or incompressible or divergenceless if
𝜵𝜵. 𝑨𝑨 = 0.
• A vector field 𝑨𝑨 is said to be irrotational or conservative field if 𝜵𝜵 × 𝑨𝑨 = 0.
• All vectors can be classified in terms of their vanishing or nonvanishing divergence or curl
as follows:
• (a) 𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴 = 0, 𝛻𝛻 × 𝐴𝐴=0
• (b) 𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝛻𝛻 × 𝐴𝐴=0
• (c) 𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴 = 0, 𝛻𝛻 × 𝐴𝐴 ≠0
• (d) 𝛻𝛻. 𝐴𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝛻𝛻 × 𝐴𝐴 ≠ 0

Fig. Typical fields with vanishing and nonvanishing divergence or curl [1]
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 References
[1] M.N. Sadiku: Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-510368-8
[2] William H. Hayt, John A. Buck: Engineering Electromagnetics,
McGraw-Hill.
[3]David J. Griffiths: Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentice Hall.

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