DEVELOPMENT OF

MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM
BONES, AND MUSCLES
DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

 The skeletal system develops from paraxial and lateral plate (somatic layer)
mesoderm and from neural crest.
 Paraxial mesoderm forms a segmented series of tissue blocks on each side of
the neural tube, known as Somitomeres (head region )and Somites (occipital
region caudally) .
 Somites differentiate into a ventromedial part, the Sclerotome, and a
dorsolateral part, the dermomyotome.
 At the end of the fourth week, sclerotome cells become polymorphous and
form a loosely woven tissue, the Mesenchyme, or embryonic connective
tissue.
 Mesenchymal cells migrate and differentiate in to fibroblasts, chondroblasts,
or osteoblasts (bone-forming cells).
Intraembryonic Mesoderm
 Develops between
Ectoderm & Endoderm
EXCEPT in the central axis
of embryo where
NOTOCHORD is found.
 Differentiates into 3
parts:
1. Paraxial mesoderm: on each side
of notochord.
2. Intermediate mesoderm
3. Lateral mesoderm
 Paraxial mesoderm
divides into units
(somites).
 Lateral mesoderm
divides by
intraembryonic
coelom into:
 Somatic mesoderm (between
ectoderm & coelom).
 Splanchnic mesoderm (between
endoderm & coelom).
SOMITES

 Paraxial mesoderm forms a segmented series of tissue blocks on each side of

the neural tube, known as Somitomeres (head region )and Somites (occipital
region caudally) .

• A small cavity, the somitocoele appears in each somite. This cavity keeps
increasing in size until it divides the somite into two parts.

• Each somite has a ventromedial part called sclerotome and a dorsolateral

part the dermomyotome

• Dermomyotome is made of Dermatome and Myotome

DERIVATIVES OF SOMITES

 Sclerotome: Bones of the axial skeleton (cranium, vertebral column, ribs and
sternum)

 Myotome: Gives rise to skeletal muscle, tongue and diaphragm.

 Dermatome: Dermis of the skin and subcutaneous tissue

ORIGIN OF THE AXIAL AND
APPENDICULAR SKELETONS
 The skull develops from mesenchymal cells of the paraxial
mesoderm(occipital somites) and neural crest cells

 The mesenchyme in the paraxial mesoderm will transform into osteoblasts

that will form the bony elements of the vertebral column(e.g. body,
transverse process, spinous process etc.), Ribs and Sternum

 The mesenchyme from the somatic layer of Lateral Plate Mesoderm will
transform into osteoblasts that will form the pelvic and pectoral girdle, and
also the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
DEVELOPMENT OF BONES
• Based on the mode of development, there are two types of bones in the
body:

• Cartilage bones, that develop via intracartilagenous (endochondral

ossification). A cartilage model first forms and is eventually replaced with
bone e.g. formation of the bones of the axial & appendicular skeletons and
the cranial base.

• Membrane bones, that develop via intramembranous ossification. Bone

forms directly from mesenchymal cells without the prior formation of
cartilage e.g. majority of bones of the face and skull
Development of Cranium (Skull)
 The skull bones develop from mesoderm around
the developing brain.
 The skull consists of:
1. Neurocranium: protective case for brain
2. Viscerocranium: skeleton of face
 Bones of skull ossify either by:
• Intracartilagenous (Endochondral) ossification, or
• Intramembranous ossification
NEUROCRANIUM

 MEMBRANOUS NEUROCRANIUM
 Mesenchymal cells are derived from neural crest cells and paraxial
mesoderm(occipital somites)
 These cells encircle the brain vesicles and form most of the flat bones of the
of the cranial vault
 They develop by intramembranous ossification
 These bones include frontal, parietal and occipital bones attached to each by
sutures and fontanelles.
NEUROCRANIUM

 CHONDROCRANIUM
 Mesenchymal cells are also derived from occipital somites and neural crest
cells.
 These mesenchymal cells form the bones that make up the base of the skull
 Chrondrocranium develops by Endochondral Ossification
 These bones include the ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, petrous part of
temporal bone and the occipital bone.
 These bones fuse together to form the base of the skull leaving small
foramina for the passage of cranial nerves
VISCEROCRANIUM

 MEMBRANOUS VISCEROCRANIUM
 Viscerocranium develops mainly from the 1st Pharyngeal arch with a little
contribution from the 2nd pharyngeal arch
 The mesenchymal cells from the pharyngeal arches forms the bones of the
face.
 The ventral and dorsal component of 1st arch forms the mandible, maxilla,
zygomatic bone, squamous part of the temporal bone and external acoustic
meatus.
 All these bone develop by membranous ossification
VISCEROCRANIUM

 ENDOCHRONDRAL VISCEROCRANIUM
 The hyoid bone, Malleus, Incus and laryngeal cartilages all develop from the
1st pharyngeal arch
 The stapes develops from the 2nd Pharyngeal arch
 All these bones and cartilages develops by Endochrondral Ossification
DEVELOPMENT OF THE VERTEBRA, RIBS
AND STERNUM
 The vertebra, ribs and sternum develops from the sclerotome portion of the
somites.
 Somites are formed from the paraxial mesoderm as blocks of tissues that
surrounds the neural tube and the notcochord.
 The rostral part of one somite fuses with caudal part of the somite above it in
a process known as resegmentation
 The somites undergo resegmentation to create intervertebral space for the
passage of spinal nerves as they develop
 The sclerotomal cells start forming osteoblast around the developing neural
tube and notochord
 This will form the vertebral arch, spinous process, vertebral body,
intervertebral disc, transverse processes and ribs.
STERNUM

 Two sternal bars are formed on either sider of the midline and these later
fuse to form the cartilaginous model of the Manubrium, Body and Xiphoid
process
 Fusion of the sternal bars occurs cephalo-caudally
 Ossification appears before birth except in the xiphoid process which appears
during childhood.
LIMBS DEVELOPMENT
 The limbs develop from the somatic layer of the lateral plate mesoderm
 Limbs develop as outpocketing on the ventrolateral body wall known as limb
buds.
 The position and development of the limb buds is initiated by the Hox genes.
The TBX4 and TBX5 genes determine the specific location of the upper and
lower limbs.
 When Hox and TBX genes are activated, they stimulated the production
Fibroblast Growth Factor-10(FGF-10) for limb bud development.
 Somatic layer of LPM starts migrating into the limb buds. The limb buds are
surrounded by an ectodermal layer.
 FGF-10 stimulates the tip of the limb bud to form Apical Ectodermal
Ridge(AER)
LIMB DEVELOPMENT
 AER secretes FGF-4 and FGF-8 which stimulates the lateral plate mesoderm in
the limb buds to start proliferating

 The part of the lateral plate mesoderm proximal to the AER forms the
Progress zone and keeps proliferating rapid due high level of FGF-4 and FGF-8

 The part of LPM distal to the AER starts to differentiate into chrondrocytes
and osteoblast forming the bones of the limbs

 Thus limb development proceed in a proximal to distal fashion.

LIMBS DEVELOPMENT
 Terminal portion of the limb buds becomes flattened to form the hand- and
footplates
 Fingers and toes are formed when cell death in the AER separates this ridge
into five parts.
 Further formation of the digits depends on their continued outgrowth under
the influence of the five segments of ridge ectoderm, condensation of the
mesenchyme to form cartilaginous digital rays, and the death of intervening
tissue between the rays .
 Both the upper and lower limbs develops in the same way, the only difference
is that the development of upper limbs precede that of the lower limb by two
days.
OSSIFICATION CENTERS

 The process of bone formation is known as ossification and there are two
types of Ossification
 Intramembranous Ossification
 Endochrondral Ossification
 There are two Ossification Centres
 Primary Center of Ossification: ossification starts at the central part of the
cartilaginous model. Portion of bone develop from this primary centre of
ossification is called DIAPHYSIS. This normally appears before birth
 SECONDARY CENTER OF OSSIFICATION: Appears at the two ends of long bones.
The portion of bone developed from this center is called EPIPHYSIS. This
usually appear after birth and allows continuous bone growth.
DEVELOPMENT OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 All muscles develop from MESODERM EXCEPT muscles of iris
(eyeball) and myoepithelial cells of mammary & sweat
glands which develop from ECTODERM
 Cardiac muscles develop from: splanchnic part of lateral
Plate mesoderm
 Smooth muscles:
 In the wall of viscera from: splanchnic part of lateral
plate mesoderm
 In the wall of blood & lymphatic vessels from: somatic
part of lateral mesoderm
 All skeletal muscles develop from myotomes of paraxial
mesoderm EXCEPT some head & neck muscles which
develop from mesoderm of pharyngeal arches
MUSCLES FROM PHARYNGEAL ARCHES

 The muscles of the face, head and neck are derived from the pharyngeal
arches
 1st Pharyngeal Arch: muscles of mastication, mylohyoid, Anterior Belly of
Digastric muscle, and Tensor villi Palatine muscle. All these muscles are
supplied by CN V
 2nd Pharyngeal Arch: Muscles of facial expression, Stylohyoid and Posterior
Belly of Digastric Muscle. These are supplied by CN VII
 3rd Pharyngeal Arch: Stylopharyngeus supplied by CN IX
 4th and 6th Pharyngeal Arch: Levator Villi Palatine, Pharyngeal and Laryngeal
Muscles supplied by CN X
TRUNK MUSCLES

 The Trunk muscles develop from the myotome component of the somite

 Myotome has a Dorsomedial part that forms EPIAXIAL(BACK) Muscles and a

Ventrolateral part that forms the HYPAXIAL(Trunk and Limb) Muscles

 EPIAXIAL(BACK) MUSCLES
• Erector Spinae
• Semispinalis
• Suboccipital
TRUNK MUSCLE

 HYPAXIAL (TRUNK) MUSCLES

 Diaphragm
 Intercostal
 Serratus
 Abdominal
 Infrahyoid
 Limb muscle(upper and lower limb muscle)
LIMB MUSCLES

 Limbs develop from Ventrolateral component of the Myotome. The muscles

are arranged into an Anterior and Posterior Condensations
 ANTERIOR CONDENSATIONS MUSCLES
 UPPER LIMBS: Flexors and Pronators
 LOWER LIMBS: Extensors, Adductors and Dorsiflexors
 POSTERIOR CONDENSATIONS MUSCLES
 UPPER LIMBS: Supinators and Extensors
 LOWER LIMBS: Flexors, Plantar flexors, and Abductors
MUSCLE FORMATION

 Mesenchymal cells of the Myotome differentiate into Myoblasts and muscle

fibres. Muscle fibres will fuse together to form the muscle bundle
 Muscle formation is regulated by the following Genes
 PAX Gene
 MyoD/MYF5 Gene
 Myogenin