Professional Documents
Culture Documents
♀—-44 autosomes – XX
Karyotyping : Classification of chromosomes based upon their differences that enable us to identify each
chromosome individually.
Spermatogenisis : The process of formation and development of spermatazoan .
Formed in the wall of the seminiferous tubules of testes.
Corpus luteum- It is an important structure derived after the rupture of ovarian follicle to shed the ovum.
2.Proliferative
3.Secretory(premenstrual)
4.Menstrual
1.Persons with two X chromosomes are female; those with one x and one y are male.
2.Y chromosome bears a gene responsible for production of a testis determining factor.
3.Interstitial cells in testis produce testosterone .It forms a complex with certain receptor proteins which attaches
itself to DNA. This causes the mesonephric duct to develop as in male.
4.Presence of dihydrotestosterone .
5.Sertoli cells produce mullerian inhibiting substance .This causes regression of paramesonephric ducts.
Genital swellings in male differentiate into scrotum whereas in a female, they form labia majora.
The mesonephric duct in a female develops into Gartner’s duct.
The Mullerian ducts in male develop into appendix testes whereas in a female, they develop into uterus and uterine
tubes.
FOETAL CIRCULATION
b) Oxygenated blood from placenta comes to foetus through umbilical vein and joins the left branch of portal vein.
Small portion passes through the substance of the liver to I V, but the greater part passes direct to I V through the
ductus venosus.
2) Lumen of umbilical veins and ductus venosus occludes and this takes place a few minutes after birth.
4) Pulmonary vessels increase in size.left atrial pressure rises than that of right atrium and leads to closure of
foramen ovale.
Remnant of
1)Position
Human skeleton ——-axial} bones of skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum, hyoid.
2) Shape
Long bones: eg: Femur, tibia, humerus, ulna, radius, and fibula
Short long bones: eg: Metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges
2)Structure
3)Development
Upper limbs-64
Lower limbs-62
Vertebrae-33
Skull – 29(14-facial bones
– 14- cranial bones , hyoid bone )
Sternum-1
Ribs- 12 pairs
Longest bone—femur
Smallest bone—stapes
Strongest part in human body- Enamel of teeth
Largest sesamoid bone — Patella developing in quadriceps.
Microscopic unit of a bone: Haversian system (secondary osteone)
Ossification
Primary centres of ossification may be single or multiple ,appear before birth between 6th – 8th week of foetal
life except cuneiform ,navicular bones .
Secondary centres of ossification are multiple and appear after birth except lower end of femur.
Growing ends of bones of lower limbs —- lower end of femur & Upper limbs of tibia and fibula
In long bones, growing ends fuse with shaft at 20 yrs and opposite ends at about 18 yrs.
In other bones it is between 20-25 yrs.
b) Traction epiphyses: subjected to traction by pull of muscles when located at the muscular attachment
c) Atavistic epiphyses: centre appearing in the part of bone which was orginally a separate bone in evolution eg :
Coracoid process of scapula.
Facial bones (14)-paired-nasal, maxillae, zygomatic, palantine, lachrymal, inferior nasal connchae.
Unpaired-mandible, vomer
Cranial bones (14)-paired- parietal, temporal, ear ossicles
Unpaired- frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, occipital.
Carpal bones- 8 bones Lat TO medial (Proximal) Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform
Foramina of skull
1.Foramen caecum: lies between the alae of crista galli of ethmoid and frontal crest. Transmits an emissary vein.
3.Superior orbital fissure: Bounded by lesser wing above, greater wing below and body of sphenoid medially.
Transmits –superior and inferior divisions of oculomotor, nasociliary nerve, abducent nerve, trochlear nerve, frontal
nerve, lacrimal nerve, lachrimal artery, orbital branch of middle meningeal artery, superior ophthalmic vein,recurrent
meningeal branch of lachrymal artery, inferior ophthalmic vein.
2. Foramen ovale — transmits mandibular nerve,accessory meningeal artery ,lesser superficial petrosal nerve,
emissary vein.
3. Foramen spinosum— transmits middle meningeal artery, nervus spinosus
Posterior large compartment: lower end of medulla oblongata, 2 anterior and one posterior spinal artery, veins
joining venous plexus, lower part of tonsil of cerebellum, vertebral artery, sympathetic plexus, spinal root of accessory
nerve.
Folds of duramater
Falx cerebri – encloses superior sagittal sinus, inferior sagittal sinus, straight sinus
Tentorium cerebelli- encloses transverse sinuses, posterior petrosal sinuses.
1. Bregma: meeting of coronal and sagittal sutures.site of anterior fontanelle, closes at 11/2 yrs of age.
2. Lambda: meeting of sagittal and lambdoid sutures .site of posterior fontanelle ,closes at 2-3 months of age.
Diaphragm
Definition CSF is a modified tissue fluid in the central nervous system. It is contained in the ventricular system of
brain and the subarad space of brain and spinal cord. CSF replaces lymph in the CNS. It acts as a sensitive mirror
which reflects diseases of the na system. Formation
1.The bulk of the CSF is formed by choroid plexuses of the lateral ventricules, and the lesser amounts by the choroid
plexus the third and fourth ventricles. ‘
2.Possibly it is also formed by the capillaries on the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
Circulation CSF passes from the lateral ventricles to the third ventricle through foramina of Monro (interventricular
foramina). Fron ventricle it passes to the fourth ventricle through cerebral aqueduct. From fourth ventricle the CSF
passes to the subarachnoid around the brain and spinal cord through the foramen of Magendie and foramina of
Luschka.
Absorption
1.CSF is absorbed chiefly by the arachnoid villi and granulations, and is thus drained to the cranial venous sinuses. 2.It
is also absorbed partly by the perineural lymphatics around I, II, VII and VIII cranial nerves 3.And also by the veins
related to the spinal nerves.
Rate of Formation 200 cc/hour, 5000 cc/day. Total Quantity About 150 cc. Pressure:60-150 mm of fluid (or
water). Composition Proteins 20-40 mg per 100 cc. Sugar 50-75 mg per 100 cc.
Chlorides 720-750 mg per 100 cc. Cells 0-5 per cubic mm
Functions : It is (a) protective, (b) nutritive, and (c) excretory to the CNS.
Applied Anatomy 1.CSF can be obtained by (a) lumbar puncture, (b) cisternal puncture, or (e) ventricular puncture.
Lumbar puncture is 1st method of all and is commonly used. It is done in the interspace between third and fourth
lumbar spines.
2.Biochemical analysis of the CSF is of diagnostic value, as the cases of meningitis and spinal tumours.
3.Drainage of CSF at regular intervals is of therapeutic value in meningitis. Certain intractable headaches of
unknown are also known having been caused by a mere lumbar puncture with drainage of CSF.
4.Obstruction to the flow of CSF in the ventricular system of brain leads to hydrocephalus in children .Spinal
obstruction leads to Froins syndrome.
Length of pharynx: 12 to 14 cm
Length of larynx
Length of vocal cords
Length of Trachea –
Constrictions in oesophagus :
Stomach :
Cardiac orifice — Behind left 7th costal cartilage 1″ from its junction with sternum.
Pyloric orifice — 1.2 cm (0.5″) to the right of midline on transpyloric plane.
1 st part: 5 cm
2nd part: 7.5 cm
3rd part: 10 cm
4th part: 2.5 cm
Anal canal
Length of Ureter : 25 cm
Cervical enlargement of spinal cord — Circumference 39 mm. Extends from LI to SI spinal segments.
Lumbar enlargement of spinal cord — Circumference 35 mm. Extends from LI to S3 spinal segments.
New born child lower limit of spinal cord is at — L3 vertebral upper border.
Length of medulla oblongata — 3 cm.
Total volume of CSF in man: 140 ml; amount of CSF in Ventricles 25 ml.
Commencement of subclavian artery — Behind sternoclavicular joint.
Termination of Subclavian artery — Outer border of 1st rib.
Termination of Brachial artery — Neck of radius.
Thoracic Aorta :
Descent of testis:
5. The lesser omentum is a fold of peritoneum extending from lesser curvature of stomach and first 2 cm of
duodenum to the liver.
6. Common carotid artery is derived from III aortic arch.
7. At full term, diameter of placenta is 6-8 inches.
57. Xiphisternal junction is usually at the level of disc between T9 and T10 verterbra.
58. Length of ductus deferens is usually 45 cms.
59. Frontal eye field motor area is 8.
60. Nerve supplying submandibular gland is VII nerve.
61. Length of female urethra is 4 cm.
Liver has a high power of regeneration. Following resection of two third portion of liver, it regenerates in
about six month
Hepatocytes drain about one litre of bile daily into bile canaliculi.
Common bile duct (CBD) is about 10 cm long.
Normal size of CBD is 6-10 mm.
Normal pressure in portal vein is 6-12 mm. of Hg.
Average size of spleen is about 5x3x1 inch. Average weight is about 150 gm.
Average size of kidney is been shaped, having weight about 150 gm.
Blood flow through each Kidney is 1-2 litre per minute.
Normal capacity of UB is about 250 ml. but can accommodate upto 500 ml of Urine.
Prostate secretes 0.5-2 ml of fluid per day, which contains Acid Phosphatase, Prostate glandins, Fibrinogen and
Citric Acid.
Length of large intestine is’1.5 m.
Length of anal canal is 3.8 cm.
Part of anal canal about 15 mm below anal valves is the transitional zone pectin.
Bile duct is 7.5-10 cm long.
Gall bladder has Capacity of 45 ml (range 30 to 50 ml) and length of 7.5 to 10 cm.
Ureter lies 2 cm lateral to cervix and Uterine artery crosses above and infront of ureter.
Size of ovary is Length 3 cm, Width 1.5 cm, Thickness 1 cm.
Vascular segments of kidney are 5.
2. Foramen lacerum lies in between petrous part of temporal bone and sphenoid.
3. Parotid duct pierces the buccinator muscle.
4. Functional tissue of lungs is alveoli.
5. Carpal tunnel syndrom involves median nerve
6. Meckel’s diverticulum arises from the antimesenteric border of ileum.
23. Automatic bladder is seen in lesions of higher centres whereas lesions at lower centres lead to autonomic
bladder.
24. Coronary sulcus is occupied by the coronary sinus.
25. Siren or vena cava is formed by brachiocephalic veins.
26. The base of heart, formed by atria, lies opposite the 5th-9th thoracic vertebrae.
27. All the tongue muscles are supplied by hypoglossal nerve except palatoglossus muscle which is supplied by
pharyngeal plexus of nerves
The weakest parts of inguinal canal are superficial and deep inguinal rings.
1. Diaphragmatic hernia commonest on the left is traumatic hernia.
2. Flexion of the knee joint takes place in the upper compartment.
3. The nerve responsible for fine movements of the hand is ulnar.
4. The retraction of shoulder is caused by serratus anterior.
25. The principal sensory nerve of the larynx is the superior laryngeal nerve.
26. The central canal of spinal canal is central in lumbar region.
27. Atriventricular (A-V) node is supplied by right coronary artery.
28. Sinoartrial node is situated at the junction of SVC and right atrium.
29. Koch’s triangle is bounded by septal leaflet of tricuspid value, tendon of Todaro and orifice of coronary sinus.
Duct of Sylvius also called cerebral aqueduct connects III and IV ventricle.
When testicular veins are ligated, the testes are drained by cremasteric veins.
Horner’s Syndrome consists of miosis, ptosis and anhidrosis.
Uterus develops from Mullerian duct.
Callot’s triangle is bounded by inferior border of liver, common hepatic duct and cystic duct.
Failure of fusion of ostium primum and ostium secundum leads to patent foramen ovale.
Oogonia are supplied from Yolk sac.
Cartwheel appearance of nucleus is seen in Sertoli cells.
Pinna is fully formed at birth.
The sternal and costal parts of diaphragm are derived from the septum transversum; a gap between these two parts
is known as foramen of Morgagni.
An abnormal foramna (of Bochdalek) is sometimes found between the central tendon and the lumbar section of the
diaphragm, it is usually left-sided.
The pool of CSF in the lower lumbosacral region is called the lumbar cistern. It contains the roots of the lower spinal
nerves (cauda equina) and the filum terminale. The spinal cord usually ends at the level of L,, in the adults. The aorta
bifurcates at the level of L4. Mamillary processes are features of lumbar vertebrae. T, is responsible for the supply of
the intrinsip muscles of the hand.
The only nerves contained within the spermatic cord are sympathetic nerves and the genital branch of
genitofemoral nerve. A direct inguinal hernia pushes through the posterior wall of the inguinal canal, medial to the
deep ring. An indirect inguinal hernia, on the other hand, passes along a patent processus vaginalis within the cord.
The formation of the portal vein by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins takes place behind the
neck of the pancreas.
The gastroduodenal artery is an important posterior relation of the first part of the duodenum, and is the artery
which may be eroded by a posterior duodenal ulcer.
The Ligamentum teres is a remnant of the left umbilical vein, which drained into the left branch of the portal vein in
the fetal liver.
The hepatic artery lies on left of CBD and the portal vein behind. Although this is the usual arrangement, variations
are sometimes found.
The artery lies to the medial side of the neck of the indirect inguinal hernia; it lies lateral to a direct inguinal hernia.
Pararenal fat (Zuckerkandl) is found behind the renal fascia: Perirenal fat (Gerota) lies between the capsule of the
renal fascia.
The external ring is an opening in the external oblique aponeurosis just above the crest of the pubis.
Fertilization usually takes place in the ampulla.
The sternal and costal parts of diaphragm are derived from the septum transversum; a gap between these two
parts is known as foramen of Morgagni.
An abnormal foramna (of Bochdalek) is sometimes found between the central tendon and the lumbar section
of the diaphragm, it is usually left-sided.
The pool of CSF in the lower lumbosacral region is called the lumbar cistern. It contains the roots of the lower
spinal nerves (cauda equina) and the filum terminale. The spinal cord usually ends at the level of L,, in the
adults. The aorta bifurcates at the level of L4. Mamillary processes are features of lumbar vertebrae. T, is
responsible for the supply of the intrinsip muscles of the hand.
The only nerves contained within the spermatic cord are sympathetic nerves and the genital branch of
genitofemoral nerve. A direct inguinal hernia pushes through the posterior wall of the inguinal canal, medial to
the deep ring. An indirect inguinal hernia, on the other hand, passes along a patent processus vaginalis within
the cord.
The formation of the portal vein by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins takes place behind
the neck of the pancreas.
The gastroduodenal artery is an important posterior relation of the first part of the duodenum, and is the
artery which may be eroded by a posterior duodenal ulcer.
The Ligamentum teres is a remnant of the left umbilical vein, which drained into the left branch of the portal
vein in the fetal liver.
The hepatic artery lies on left of CBD and the portal vein behind. Although this is the usual arrangement,
variations are sometimes found.
The artery lies to the medial side of the neck of the indirect inguinal hernia; it lies lateral to a direct inguinal
hernia. Pararenal fat (Zuckerkandl) is found behind the renal fascia: Perirenal fat (Gerota) lies between the
capsule of the renal fascia.
The Median umbilical ligament is a remnant of the vitelline or yolk duct.
The external ring is an opening in the external oblique aponeurosis just above the crest of the pubis.
Tensor fasciae inserts into the iliotibial tract. Muscles which insert into the greater trochanter include gluteus
medius,gluteus minimus, piriformis and obturator internus. Obturator externus inserts into the trochanteric
fossa.
Blood brain barrier is made up of : (1) the vessel wall; (ii) the arachnoid layer of perivascular sheath; (iii) the
perivascular space; (iv) the pial layer of perivascular sheath, and (v) the neuroglia and the ground substance of the
brain. The barrier, at the capillary level, is reduced to the mere capillary endothelium with neuroglia and ground
substance.
Hemiplegia of an upper motor neuron type is usually due to an internal capsular lesion caused by thrombosis of one
of the lenticulostriate branches of the middle cerebral artery (cerebral thrombosis).
One of the lenticulostriate branches is most frequently ruptured (cerebral haemorrhage); it is known as Charchot’s
artery ofcerebral haemorrhage. This lesion also produces hemiplegia with deep coma, and is ultimately fatal.
Thrombosis of the Huebner’s recurrent branch of anterior cerebral artery causes contralateral upper monoplegia.
Thrombosis of paracentral artery (terminal cortical branch of anterior cerebral artery) causes contralateral lower
monoplegia.
Thrombosis of posterior inferior cerebellar artery causes lateral medullary syndrome (Wallenberg’s syndrome). It is
characterized by :
Pontine haemorrhage is characterized by (i) paralysis (contralateral hemiplegia); (ii) deep ctfma; (iii) hyperpyrexia;
and (iv)pin-point pupil. It is invariably fatal.
The hunger or feeding centre is placed laterally; the satiety centre, medially in hypothalamus.
Sphenoethmoidal recess is a depression lying above and behind the superior choncha. It receives the opening of
sphenoidal air sinus.
Middle meatus receives the opening of middle ethmoidal air sinuses on or above the bulla ethmoidalis and maxillary
sinus opening in the floor of hiatus semilunaris.
Anterior meatus receives the opening of naso lacrimal duct. Opening is guarded by a fold of mucous membrane
which forms a valve.
Uvula is a conical (projection) process hanging from middle of posterior border of soft palate.
Dorsal surface of tongue is divided into posterior 1/3 and anterior 2/3 by a ‘V shaped sulcus terminalis. Papillae of the
tongue are filiform, fungiform and circumvallate papillae
Foreign body removal from pyri form fossa may damage the internal laryngeal nerve resulting in anaesthesia of
laryngeal mucous membrane upto vocal cords.
Erb’s point’ is the meeting point of two roots C3, C6, two divisions of upper trunk (anterior and posterior); and two
nerves viz. supra scapular and nerve to subclavius. Stretch of this point leads to Erb’s paralysis.
External Jugular vein pierces the deep cervical fascia before it drains into the subclavian vein. The walls of the vein
are adherent to the deep fascia and this factor prevents the retraction of vein when cut. Hence the opening should
immediately be closed by applying pressure otherwise air may be sucked in during inspiration.
True capsule of thyroid gland has to be removed during thyroidectomy along with the gland as the major vessel
trunks pass through the space between true and false capsules and there is a rich plexus of vessels immediately
beneath the true capsule. Rupture of veins draining from upper part of nasal septum (Joining the inferior cerebral
veins in cranium) may be the source of severe nasal bleeding in elderly hypertensive patients.
Suprasternal space of ‘Burns’ is space above upper margin of manubrium sterni with in the general investing layer of
deep cervical fascia.
Typical intercostal space is the space present between two typical ribs (i.e 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th spaces) and
transversed by vessels and nerves confined to thoracic wall. Angle of Louis is sternal angle.
Typical intercostal nerves are 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, intercostal nerves; these run in typical intercostal space and supply
the structures of that intercostal space only.
Anteriorly 2nd to 4th tracheal rings are related to isthmus of thyroid gland.
Trachea divides into right and left principal bronchi, Right principal bronchus is 2.5 cm long and in line with
trachea and left runs transversely.
Right principal bronchus divides into 3 lobar bronchi and left principal bronchus divides into 2 lobar bronchi.
There are 10 bronchopulmonary segments in each lung.
In its course thoracic duct is behind and to the right of oesophagus in the lower part, crosses the midline at 5th
thoracic vertebral level behind oesophagus then lies to the left of oesophagus in the rest of its course.
Thoracic duct passes from abdomen to thorax through aortic opening of diaphragm.
Suprapleural membrane is a membrane which expands over cervical pleura and is attached infront to the 1st
rib and behind to the transverse process of 7th cervical vertebra. This is also called Sibson’s fascia.
Innervation by intercostal nerves makes the parietal pleura sensitive to pain.
Arrangement of structures in each intercostal space is vein, artery and nerve (VAN) from above downwards
except in upper spaces. Here the nerve is at first above the posterior intercostal artery. ‘
Mediastinal and central diaphragmatic pleura are innervated by phrenic nerve; hence irritation causes referred
pain to should tip or lower neck i.e. the area of skin supply by same spinal segments (C3, C4).