Psychology-Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods Bergen FALL 2020

Psychology in Action
Twelfth Edition
Karen Huffman ● Katherine Dowdell ● Catherine A. Sanderson
Chapter 1
Introduction and Research Methods
Why Study Psychology?
Increase your chances for
personal, academic, and
professional success
Deepen your
understanding of yourself
and others
Broaden your general
education and success as a
global citizen
Improve your critical
thinking
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2
What is Psychology? Scientific
Methods and Thinking
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Critical Thinking
Process of objectively What are the advantages?
evaluating, comparing,
analyzing, and More independent thinker
synthesizing information Better decision maker
More effective problem solver

Pseudopsychologies
Give the appearance of science The AMAZING Randi
but are FALSE, including:
• Psychic readings
• Mediums
• Palmistry
• Astrology
• Graphology

Psychology’s Past: A Brief History
Structuralism
Sought to identify the structure of mental life by identifying
“elements” of conscious experience. Primary method was the
use of introspection.
Functionalism
Sought to identify the functions of experience and how it
helps us adapt to our surroundings (i.e., why do we
experience anger and what value does it serve?)
Psychoanalytic Model
Focused on unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts
that influence current behavior.
Modern Psychology’s Seven Major
Perspectives (1 of 4)
Table 1.1 Modern Psychology’s Seven Major Perspectives
Perspectives Major Emphases Sample Research Questions Blank
Psychodynamic Unconscious dynamics, How do adult personality Decorative Image
motives, conflicts, and traits or psychological
past experiences problems reflect unconscious
processes and early childhood
experiences?
Behavioral Objective, observable, How do reinforcement and Decorative Image
environmental punishment affect behavior?
influences on overt How can we increase
behavior; stimulus– desirable behaviors and
response (S-R) decrease undesirable ones?
relationships and
consequences for
behavior


Humanistic Free will, self- How can we promote a Decorative Image
actualization, and client’s capacity for self-
human nature as actualization and
naturally positive and understanding of his or her
growth seeking own development? How can
we promote international
peace and reduce violence?
Cognitive Mental processes used How do our thoughts and Decorative Image
in thinking, knowing, interpretations affect how we
remembering, and respond in certain situations?
communicating How can we improve how we
process, store, and retrieve
information?


Biological Genetic and biological How might changes in Decorative Image
processes in the brain neurotransmitters or damage
and other parts of the to parts of the brain lead to
nervous system psychological problems and
changes in behavior and
mental processes?
Evolutionary Natural selection, How does natural selection Decorative Image
adaptation, and help explain why we love and
reproduction help certain people, but hurt
others? Do we have specific
genes for aggression and
altruism?

Sociocultural Social interaction and How do the values and beliefs Decorative Image
the cultural transmitted from our social and
determinants of cultural environments
behavior and mental affect our everyday
processes psychological processes?
Study Tip Why do we need seven perspectives? What

Illustrations do you see in this figure? Is it two profiles
facing each other, a white vase, or both?
Do not skip over photos, figures, and Your ability to see both figures is similar to a
tables. They visually reinforce important psychologist’s ability to study behavior and
concepts and often contain material that mental processes from a number of
may appear on exams. different perspectives.

Biopsychosocial Model
An integrative, unifying
theme that sees biological,
psychological, and social
processes as interrelated
and interacting influences.

A Comparison Between Individualistic and
Collectivistic Cultures (1 of 2)
Table 1.2 A Comparison Between Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures
Sample Individualistic Countries Sample Collectivistic Cultures
United States Korea
Australia China
Great Britain India
Canada Japan
The Netherlands West Africa region
Germany Thailand
New Zealand Taiwan

A Comparison Between Individualistic and
Collectivistic Cultures (2 of 2)
Sample Individualistic Values Sample Collectivistic Values
Independence Interdependence
Individual rights Obligations to others
Self-sufficiency Reliance on group
Individual achievement Group achievement
Independent living Living with kin
Personal failure leads to shame and guilt Failing the group leads to shame and guilt

What Can I Do with My Bachelor’s Degree in
Psychology? (1 of 2)
Table 1.3 What Can I Do with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology?
Top Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology
Management and administration
Sales
Social work
Labor relations, personnel, and training
Real estate, business services, insurance

What Can I Do with My Bachelor’s Degree in
Psychology? (2 of 2)
Sample Skills Gained from a Psychology Major
Improved ability to predict and understand behavior
Better understanding of how to use and interpret data
Increased communication and interpersonal skills
Increased ability to manage difficult situations and high-stress environments
Enhanced insight into problem behavior
Note that the U.S. Department of Labor predicts only an average rate of
growth for psychologists in the next decade.
However, the good news is that a degree in our field, and this course in
general psychology, will provide you with invaluable lifetime skills.

Psychology at Work: Sample Careers and
Specialties in Psychology (1 of 8)
Table 1.4 Sample Careers and Specialties in Psychology
Blank Career/Specialty Description
Biopsychologist/neuroscientist Investigates the relationship
AA photo shows a girl speaking with an adult male who holds a note pad and pencil. photo
shows a girl speaking with an adult male who holds a note paper and pencil.
between biology, behavior,

and mental processes,
including how physical and
chemical processes affect
the structure and function
of the brain and nervous
system
Clinical and counseling
psychology For most
people, this is the role most
commonly associated
with psychology.

Blan Clinical psychologist Specializes in the evaluation, diagnosis, and
k treatment of psychological disorders
Blan Cognitive psychologist Examines “higher” mental processes, including
k thought, memory, intelligence, creativity, and
language
Blan Comparative psychologist Studies the behavior and mental processes of
k nonhuman animals; emphasizes evolution and
cross-species comparisons
Blan Counseling Psychologist Overlaps with clinical psychology, but generally
k works with less seriously disordered individuals
and focuses more on social, educational, and
career adjustment

Blan Cross-cultural psychologist/ Studies similarities and differences in and
k psychological anthropologist across various cultures and ethnic groups
Blan Developmental psychologist Studies the course of human growth and
k development from conception to death
Blan Educational psychologist Studies the processes of education and works
k to promote the academic, intellectual, social,
and emotional development of children in the
school environment
Blan Environmental psychologist Investigates how people affect and are affected
k by the physical environment

blank Career/Specialty Description
Experimental psychologist Examines processes such as
A photo shows a dolphin beside a dock. A woman leans over the dock toward the water and kisses
the dolphin on the nose.
learning, conditioning,
motivation, emotion,
sensation, and perception in
humans and other animals
(Note that psychologists
working in almost all other
Comparative and experimental areas of specialization also
psychology Research with
human and nonhuman animals conduct research.)
has provided valuable insights
into behavior and mental
processes.

Blan Forensic psychologist Applies principles of psychology to the legal
k system, including jury selection, psychological
profiling, assessment, and treatment of
offenders
Blan Gender and/or cultural Investigates how men and women and different
k psychologist cultures vary from one another and how they
are similar
Blan Health psychologist Studies how biological, psychological, and social
k factors affect health, illness, and health-related
behaviors

Industrial/organizational Applies principles of
A photo features Katherine Dowdell.
psychologist psychology to the

workplace, including
personnel selection and
evaluation, leadership,
job satisfaction, employee
Psychologists often wear many motivation, and group
hats Professor Katherine processes within the
Dowdell teaches full time at Des organization
Moines Area Community
College, serves as a department
chair, and is a co-author of this
text.

Blan Personality psychologist Studies the unique and relatively stable
k patterns in a person’s thoughts, feelings, and
actions
Blan Positive psychologist Examines factors related to optimal human
k functioning
Blan School psychologist Collaborates with teachers, parents, and
k students within the educational system to help
children with special needs related to a
disability and/or their academic and social
progress; also provides evaluation and
assessment of a student’s functioning and
eligibility for special services

Blan Social psychologist Investigates the role of social forces in
k interpersonal behavior, including aggression,
prejudice, love, helping, conformity, and
attitudes
Blan Sport psychologist Applies principles of psychology to enhance
k physical performance

Types of Research
Basic Research Applied Research
• Research conducted to • Research designed to solve
advance scientific practical (“real world”)
knowledge problems
• Typically conducted in a • Typically conducted outside
university or a research of a laboratory
laboratory

Applied Research in Psychology
Figure 1.6 Applied research in psychology Note how psychological research has helped
design safer and more reliable appliances, machinery, and instrument controls
(Psychology Matters, 2006).
a. Spatial correspondence Controls for
stovetops should be arranged in a pattern
that corresponds to the placement of the
burners.
b. Visibility Automobile gauges for c. Arrangement of numbers A top-down

fuel, temperature, and speed should arrangement of numbers on a cell phone is
be easily visible to the driver. more efficient than the bottom-up
arrangement on a computer’s keyboard.
Six Steps of the Scientific Method

Important Terms (1 of 2)
Hypothesis
A tentative and testable explanation about the relationship
between two or more variables; a testable prediction
Operational Definition
Precise description of how the variables in a study will be
observed and measured (for example, drug abuse might be
operationally defined as “the number of missed work days
due to excessive use of an addictive substance”)
Statistical Significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that a study’s result
occurred merely by chance
Important Terms (2 of 2)
Meta-Analysis
A statistical technique for combining and
analyzing data from many studies in order
to determine overall trends
Theory
A well-substantiated explanation for a
phenomenon or a group of facts that have
been repeatedly confirmed by previous
research
Figure 1.7 Opinions versus facts—science to the rescue! Early experiments, conducted primarily by Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473–1543), led to a collection of facts and the ultimate theory that the Earth was not the center of the
universe (as generally assumed at the time) (Figure a). Instead, it rotated around the sun with the other planets in
concentric circles. Later scientists (astronomers Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe) built on this Copernican (heliocentric)
theory with additional experiments that led to a revised theory, in which the orbits were not circular, but rather elliptical
(Figure b). Today, researchers have expanded the theory even further by demonstrating that our sun is not the center of
the universe, but only a part of a galaxy that in turn is only one of many billions. Can you see how these incremental
changes illustrate the value of scientific theories and their ever-changing and self-correcting nature?

Psychology’s Four Main Goals
Description
What is the nature of the behavior or mental process?
“Boys are more aggressive than girls.”
Explanation
Why does this behavior or mental process occur?
“Research indicates that there are numerous interacting causes or explanations for
aggression, including culture, learning, genes, brain damage, and high levels of
testosterone.”
Prediction
When will this behavior or mental process occur?
“Knowing that alcohol leads to increased aggression, we can predict that more fights will
erupt in places where alcohol is consumed than in those where alcohol isn’t consumed.”
Change
How can we bring about desired outcomes or prevent undesired outcomes?
Psychologists help people improve their work environment, stop addictive behaviors,
become less depressed, improve their family relationships.
Three Areas of Ethical Concern (1 of 3)
Area One • Informed consent
Respecting the Rights of • Voluntary participation
Human Participants • Restricted use of
deception, followed by
debriefing
• Confidentiality

Area Two
Respecting the Rights of
Nonhuman Animal
Participants
In all institutions where nonhuman animal research is conducted, animal care

committees are established to ensure proper treatment of research animals, to
review projects, and to set guidelines that are in accordance with the APA
standards.

Area Three • Personal information and therapy
records must be kept confidential, with
Respecting the Rights records being available only with the
of Psychotherapy client’s permission.
Patients • The public’s right to safety ethically
outweighs the client’s right to privacy.
• Therapists are legally required to break
confidentiality if a client threatens
violence to him or herself or to others.
• Breaking of confidentiality also applies
if a client is suspected of abusing a
child or an elderly person.

Important Term (1 of 2)
Descriptive Research
A type of research that systematically observes and
records behavior and mental processes without
manipulating variables; designed to meet the goal of
description.

Descriptive Research (1 of 2)
Naturalistic Observation
Observation and recording behavior and mental processes in the
participant’s natural state or habitat.
Survey
Research technique that questions a large sample of people to
assess their behaviors and attitudes.
Case Study
In-depth study of a single research participant or a small group of
individuals.

Descriptive Research (2 of 2)
Archival Research
A descriptive research approach that studies existing data to find
answers to research questions

Understanding Correlations
Strength of Relationship
Correlation coefficients are calculated by a formula that produces a number ranging from 1.00 to
1.00. Both +1.00 and –1.00 are the strongest possible relationship. As the number decreases and gets
closer to 0.00, the relationship weakens.
Direction of Relationship
Positive Correlation is one in which the two variables move (or vary) in the same direction—the two
factors increase or decrease together.
Negative Correlation is one in which two factors vary in opposite directions.
Figure 1.10 Three types of correlation Note that these are hypothetical graphs, but the results in Figure a and
Figure b are consistent with research findings on the importance of class attendance (e.g., Putnam et al., 2016). For
more details, see the Tools for Student Success section at the end of this chapter.

Problems with Correlations (1 of 2)
Table 1.6 Superstitions as Illusory Correlations
Blank Behavior Superstition
Decorative Image Wedding plans: The something old is usually clothing that belongs to
Why do brides wear an older woman who is happily married. Thus, the
something old and bride will supposedly transfer that good fortune to
something borrowed? herself. Something borrowed is often a relative’s
jewelry. This item should be golden, because gold
represents the sun, which was once thought to be the
source of life.
Decorative Image Spilling salt: Years ago, people believed good spirits lived on the
Why do some people right side of the body, and bad spirits on the left. If
throw a pinch of salt someone spilled salt, it supposedly meant that a
over their left guardian spirit had caused the accident to warn him
shoulder? or her of evil nearby. At the time, salt was scarce and
precious. Therefore, the person was advised to bribe
the bad spirits with a pinch of salt thrown over his or
her left shoulder.

Problems with Correlations (2 of 2)
Blank Behavior Superstition
Decorative Image Knocking on wood: Down through the ages, people have believed that
Why do some people trees were homes of gods, who were kind and
knock on wood when generous if approached in the right way. A person
they’re speaking of who wanted to ask a favor of the tree god would
good fortune or making touch the bark. After the favor was granted, the
predictions? person would return to knock on the tree as a sign of
thanks.

Important Term (2 of 2)
Experimental Research
A carefully controlled scientific procedure that involves
the manipulation and control of variables to determine
cause and effect; designed to meet the goal of
explanation.

Research Methods: Experimental
Key Features of an Experiment
• Independent variable versus dependent variable
• Experimental group versus control group
• Random assignment
• Controlling confounding variables

Labeling Variables and Groups
Label the IV, DV, Control Group, and Experimental Group in each scenario.
• A researcher is interested in how the activity level of four-year-olds is affected
by viewing a 30-minute video of Calliou or a 30-minute video of X-Men.
• A therapist wants to test a new drug designed to increase the ability of
teenagers with ADHD to take accurate notes in class.
• A biopsychologist wants to know if exposure to testosterone in adult female
rats increases their aggressive behavior.
• A social psychologist is interested in whether or not there is a gender
difference in how much money men and women will say they should be paid
for the same task.
• An industrial psychologist believes that cooling the room temperature may
have an impact on productivity levels in the assembly line.

Experimental Methods: Potential Researcher
Problems (1 of 2)
Experimenter Bias
When the researcher influences the results in the expected direction
Single-Blind Study
Only the researcher, and not the participants, knows who is in either the
experimental or control group
Double-Blind Study
Both the researcher and the participants are unaware of (blind to) who is
in experimental or control group
Ethnocentrism
Believing one’s culture is typical of all cultures, is central and “correct,”
and judging others by this standard.

Experimental Methods: Potential Researcher
Problems (2 of 2)
Placebo
Inactive substance used as a control
Sample Bias
Occurs when research participants are not representative of the
larger population
Random Assignment
Using chance methods to assign participants to experimental or
control conditions
Participant Bias
Occurs when experimental conditions influence the participant’s
behavior
Tools for Student Success
How to succeed in your psychology course!
1. Familiarization
2. Active reading
3. Avoid highlighting and rereading
4. Overlearn

Tools for Student Success: Time
Management
1. Establish a baseline
2. Set up a realistic schedule
3. Reward yourself
4. Maximize your time

Tools for Student Success: Grade
Improvement
1. Maximize each class session
2. Improve your general test-taking skills
3. Take study skills courses
4. Distribute your practice
5. Practice your test taking

Copyright
Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in
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copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the
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responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages, caused by the use of these programs or
from the use of the information contained herein.

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Psychology in Action

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Perspectives Major Emphases Sample Research Questions Blank

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Perspectives Major Emphases Sample Research Questions Blank

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Study Tip Why do we need seven perspectives? What

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between biology, behavior,

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psychologist psychology to the

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b. Visibility Automobile gauges for c. Arrangement of numbers A top-down

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In all institutions where nonhuman animal research is conducted, animal care

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