Polynomials and Other Functions

Year 11 Methods
Polynomial Functions
• In a linear function the highest power of is 1.
y=m +c
• In a quadratic function the highest power of is 2.
y = a2 + b + c
• In a cubic function the highest power of is 3.
y = a3 + b2 + + d
• In a quartic function the highest power of is 4.
y = a4 + b3 + + e

• And so on
Polynomial Functions

• The power of is the order of the polynomial.

• Linear functions are polynomials of order 1.

• Quadratic functions are polynomials of order 2.

• We will concentrate on cubic functions or polynomials of order 3.

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• The most basic cubic equation is y = 3.

• A table of values for the graph of y = 3 is given below.

Note that the table of

values have a
constant third
difference pattern.
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• The graph of y = 3 is shown

to the right.
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• The features of the graph y = 3 include:

• if x is positive then y is positive.
• So as x gets larger positively, we would
expect y to be even larger and positive.
• If x is negative then y is negative.
• So as x gets larger negatively, we would
expect y to be even larger and negative.
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• For every point (x,y) on the graph there

will also exist a point (x, y).
E.g. (2,8) and (2, 8).
(4,64) and (4, 64).

• So for f(x) = 3 , f( a) = f(a).

• This gives the graph its rotational symmetry.

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Cubic functions will not all have the same shape graph as that of
3
but they all have either two turning points or no turning points.
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Cubic functions will not all have the same shape graph as that of
3
but they all cut the y-axis once and cut (or touch) the
x axis in 1, 2 or 3 places.
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Determine the coordinates of the point where the graph of the cubic
function y = 33 + 22 + + 7 cuts the y axis.

• All the points on the y axis have an x coordinate of 0.

if x = 0 then y = 3 + 2(0)2 + + 7
y=7
• The given cubic function cuts the y axis at the point (0,7)
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Cubic functions can also be given in factorized form.

y=a(xp)(xq)(xr)

• Determine the coordinates of the points where the graph of the cubic
function y=(x5)(3x2)(x+3)

cuts the x axis? cuts the y axis?

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions
• y=(x5)(3x2)(x+3)

• All points on the x axis have a y coordinate of 0.

If y = 0 then 0=(x5)(3x2)(x+3)

If the three brackets have a product of zero, one of the brackets must be equal to zero.

So if (x5) = 0 or (3x2) = 0 or (x+3) = 0

then x=5 or x= or x= 3
• The graph cuts the x axis at (5,0), (,0) or (3,0)
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• y=(x5)(x2)(x+3)

• All the points on the y axis have an x coordinate of 0.

if x = 0 then y=
y=
y = (5)(2)(3)
y = 30
The given cubic function cuts the y axis at the point (0,30)
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• On your Classpad, graph the following:

y = (x  3)3
y = (x + 2)3 The graph of y = (x  b)3 :
y = (2x  1)3 • Cuts the x axis once at b
y = (3x + 2)3 • Cuts the y axis once
• Has a point of inflection

• What do you notice?

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Investigating Cubic Graphs of the Form y = a(x+b)^3 +c – GeoGebra

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• On your Classpad, graph the following:

y = (x  3)(x  1)2
y = (x + 2)(x +5)2
y = (2x + 1)(2x  1)2
y = (x 1)(3x + 2)2
• What do you notice?
The graph of y = (x  b)(x  c)2 :
• Has two turning points.
• Cuts the x axis once at b and
• Touches the x axis at  c
• Cuts the y axis once
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• The easiest way to access the graph of a cubic function is via the Classpad.

• However, if you are required to make a sketch of a cubic function without

the use of a calculator then as long as it is in factorized form or a form that
is easily factorized, then we can determine sufficient information for a
reasonable sketch to be made.
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• For the cubic function y =  2(x+2)(x1)(x3), find the coordinates of any

point where the graph of the function cuts
(a) the y axis
(b) the x axis
• Describe the behaviour of the y values as the x values become
(c) increasingly large positively
(d) increasingly large negatively
(e) Hence sketch the function.
Polynomial Functions
– Cubic Functions

• y intercept = (0,12)
• x intercept = (-2,0), (1,0), (3,0)
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Without the assistance of a graphic calculator, produce the sketch of the

graph of the cubic function with equation
y = 2(x+2)(x1)2
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• y intercept = (0,4)
• x intercept = (-2,0) and (1,0)
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Use you Classpad to view the graph of y = 33 + 42   2.

• Determine the coordinates of the point(s) where the function cuts the x axis,
rounding any x coordinates to two decimal places.
 Polynomial Functions
– Cubic Functions
• Coordinates are (1.69,0), (0.47,0), (0.83, 0)
 Solving cubic equations
Cubic functions may be expressed in the factor form
3 2
𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥 +𝑏 𝑥 +𝑐𝑥+ 𝑑
𝑦 =𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑃)(𝑥 − 𝑞)(𝑥 −𝑟 )

When a polynomial equation is written in factor form then the roots are
easily determined by the application of the Null Factor Law.
 Factor theorem
For any polynomial if , then is a factor of the polynomial.
Example:
 Is a factor of
 Is a factor of


Hence is not a factor of


Hence is a factor of
 Factor theorem
When finding possible values that would give a factor of the polynomial, it is
a good idea to first consider factors of the constant term of the polynomial to
reduce the number of trials.

Example:
factors of 6 are




 Factor theorem
Example:

factors of 12 are




 Factor theorem
Example:
factors of 21 are


 Hence (x+1) is a factor.

 Hence (x1) is not a factor.

 Hence (x 3) is a factor.
 Therefore the remaining factor must be (x 7)
Polynomial Functions
• Make sure you know the meaning of the following terms:
• x axis intercepts the x-coordinate of the point at which a graph crosses the x-axis.

• y axis intercepts the y-coordinate of the point at which a graph crosses the y-axis.

• maximum turning points the graph is shaped like a “hill” coming up to a high point. This is
sometimes referred to as concave down
• concave down
• minimum turning points the graph is shaped like a “valley” coming down to a low point. This is
sometimes referred to as concave up.
• concave up
exist where a function changes its concavity; i.e. from concave up to concave
• point of inflection down or vice versa.
• horizontal point of inflection when at the point of inflection the graph is momentarily horizontal

• asymptotes these are lines that the curve gets closer and closer to without ever quite touching
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Do Exercise 7A
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• What does altering the “a” in y=ax3 do to the graph of y=x3?

y =x3 y = – x3
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

y = 2x3 y = 3x3 y = 5x3

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Does altering the “b” in y = (x – b)3 translate the graph horizontally?

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

y = (x – 1)3 y = (x – 4)3 y = (x + 3)3

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

• Does altering the “c” in y = x3 + c translate the graph horizontally?

Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

y = x3 + 3 y = x3 – 1 y = x3 – 5
 Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions
• So how does the graph of y = a (x – b)3 + c compare to the graph of y = x3 ?
Polynomial Functions – Cubic Functions

y = 5(x – 3)3 + 2 y = – 2(x + 1)3 – 4

Polynomial Functions – Reciprocal Function

• The reciprocal function is a function in which the independent variable x is

part of the denominator of the function.

• The graph of a reciprocal function is known as a hyperbola.

Polynomial Functions – Reciprocal Functions

• The general equation for a reciprocal function is

or kx–1, where k is a constant, k ≠0 and x is real, x ≠ 0

• As x can take on a positive or negative value, two different graphs arise.

 Polynomial Functions – Reciprocal Functions
• It can be seen that the hyperbola is made up
of two different parts, known as the branches
of the hyperbola.
• For k>0, branches are located in the first and
third quadrants.
• When x is positive, y is positive.
• When x is negative, y is negative.
• If x is large, y must be small.
• If x is small, y must be large.
• The graph has rotational symmetry.
 Polynomial Functions – Reciprocal Functions
• The branches approach the respective axes
but never actually touch or intersect them.
• The x axis is said to be the horizontal
asymptote to the curve and the y axis is a
vertical asymptote.
• The domain of the reciprocal function is the
set of all non-zero real numbers.
That is {x:x R, x ≠ 0}.
• The range is also is the set of all non-zero
real numbers.
Polynomial Functions – Reciprocal Function
• What happens to the graph of y = as the values of a, b and c change? How does
this compare to the graph of y = ?

• The reciprocal function – GeoGebra

Polynomial Functions – Square Root Function
• The general form of the square root function is y = ½.
• We cannot determine the square root of a negative number, hence the graph
does not exist for negative values of x.
• We cannot determine a value of x for which will be negative, hence the graph
does not exist for negative values of y.
• Therefore, the graph only exists in the first quadrant.
• We expect the graph to include the point (0,0).
• As x gets large positively y would also get larger positively, but at a slower rate.
Polynomial Functions – Square Root Function

y=
Polynomial Functions – Square Root Function
•y=

• What happens to the function as the value of b changes?

• Square Root Function Horizontal Translation – GeoGebra

Polynomial Functions – Square Root Function
•y= +c

• What happens to the function as the value of c changes?

• Square Root Function Vertical Translation – GeoGebra

Polynomial Functions – Square Root Function
•y=a

• What happens to the function if the value of a is negative?

• Square Root Function Reflection – GeoGebra

• Graphing Square Root Functions – GeoGebra
Polynomial Functions
• Do Exercise 7B
Polynomial Functions - Transformations
• For the graphs of y=x2 or y=x3 or y= or y = , we have seen that we can
transform the graphs by adding constants in various forms.

• Note: we will be using y = f(x) to represent a general function.

This graph could be the graph of any

function. We will use it to illustrate the
translations that follow.
Polynomial Functions - Transformations
• What do the following transformations do?
• Adding k to the right hand side?
• If the graph of y = f(x) is changed to y = f(x) + k then
• if k is positive then the graph is translated vertically upwards.
• if k is negative then the graph is translated vertically downwards.
Polynomial Functions - Transformations
• What do the following transformations do?
• replacing x by (x  k)?
• If the graph of y = f(x) is changed to y = f(x  k) then
• if k is positive then the graph is translated horizontally to the right.
• if k is negative then the graph is translated horizontally to the left.
Polynomial Functions - Transformations
• What do the following transformations do?
• multiplying the right hand side by 1?
• If the graph of y = f(x) is changed to y =  f(x) then
• the graph will be reflected in the x axis
Polynomial Functions - Transformations
• What do the following transformations do?
• replacing x by x?
• If the graph of y = f(x) is changed to y = f( x) then
• the graph will be reflected in the y axis
Polynomial Functions - Transformations

• What do the following transformations do?

• multiplying the right hand side by a?
• If the graph of y = f(x) is changed to y =af(x) then
• the graph will be dilated parallel to the y axis with scale factor
of a.
• a point that is q units above the x axis will move vertically to a
point that is aq units above the x axis. Points on the x axis will not
move.
• if a>1 the effect will be to stretch y = f(x) vertically
• if 0<a<1 the effect will be to compress y = f(x) vertically
Polynomial Functions - Transformations

• What do the following transformations do?

• replacing x by ax?
• If the graph of y = f(x) is changed to y = f(ax) then
• the graph will be dilated parallel to the x axis with scale
factor of .
• a point that is p units above the y axis will move
horizontally to a point that is units from the y axis.
Points on the y axis will not move.
• if a>1 the effect will be to compress y = f(x) horizontally
• if 0<a<1 the effect will be to stretch y = f(x) horizontally
 Example
Describe the successive transformations that map to each of the
following

a) translated 2 units left

b) dilated parallel to the x-axis, scale factor

c) Dilated parallel to the y-axis, scale factor 2

 Example
Describe the successive transformations that map to each of the
following

d) translated 2 units up

e) reflected in the y-axis

f) reflected in the x-axis, dilated parallel

to the y-axis, scale factor 2 and translated 1
units up.
 Example
Describe the successive transformations that map to each of the following

g)

reflected in the y-axis, dilated parallel to the y-axis, scale factor 0.5 and
translated by 1 units left.

h)

Reflected in the x-axis, dilated parallel to the x-axis, scale factor and
translated 1 unit up.
Polynomial Functions - Transformations

• Complete Exercise 7C
Relationships that are NOT functions

• The graph of a circle, shown right, is not a function as it fails the vertical
line test.

• For some x-values there exists more than

one y-value.
Relationships that are NOT functions - Graph of a circle
Consider the circle with a centre C, the origin (0,0) and
a radius r units.

By the Pythagorean theorem, the

equation is the equation of a circle
whose centre is the origin and
whose radius is r.
 Relationships that are NOT functions - Graph of a circle
A circle with centre Cand radius r units.

The equation (
is the equation of a circle whose centre is
and whose radius is r.
Relationships that are NOT functions - Graph of a circle
Find the equation of the circle which has its centre at the point (2, -5) and
whose radius is 6 units.
Relationships that are NOT functions - Graph of a circle
Finding the centre and radius of a circle with an equation

Example:

I. Complete the square

II. Write in factorised form

circle has a centre at (3,2) and a radius of 5 units

Relationships that are NOT functions
Consider the graphs of and
shown right.

• Graph of is parabolic and has the x-axis as

a line of symmetry.

• It exhibits a “one-to-many” correspondence

and is therefore a relation.
 Relationships that are NOT functions
In order to find the line of symmetry and the
turning point, rearrange the equation into the form a
(y–c)2 + b = 0.

• The axis or line of symmetry is given by y

=c

• And the turning point is found at (b,c)

• The axis or line of symmetry for

(y – 3)2– 2 = x is y = 3

• And the turning point is found at (– 2,3)

Relationships that are NOT functions
Consider the relation
I. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry?

II. State the co-ordinate of the turning point and its nature.
Turning point (-2, 0), concave to the right.

III. State the domain and range of the relation

Domain (), Range (y)
Relationships that are NOT functions
Consider the relation
I. What is the equation of the axis of symmetry?

II. State the co-ordinate of the turning point and its nature.
Turning point (-3, 2), concave to the right.

III. State the domain and range of the relation

Domain (), Range (y)
Relationships that are NOT functions

• Complete Exercise 7D