CHARACTERISTICS OF

RESIDUAL STRESS

They are elastic in Nature

They are self equilibrating

Any disturbance like removal of

material or introduction of thermal
load will alter the equilibrium

Can not be eliminated but only be

minimized
INFLUENCES OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

 Brittle Fracture

 Fatigue Failure

 Stress Corrosion Cracking

 Dimensional instability
INFLUENCES OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

 Minimize load carrying capacity

 Residual stress can make a defect a
fracture
 Presence of compressive residual
stress can cause buckling in thin
structural members
METHODS OF MINIMIZING RESIDUAL
STRESSES

Stress relieving Annealing

Vibration stress reliving
Local Post weld heat treatment
Over stressing

Hammer Peening
Needle pin Peening
Methods of Heat treatment

• Out Gassing or Hydrogen Back out

• Pre heating

• Post Heating

• Post Weld Heat Treatment

Out Gassing or Hydrogen Back out

The objective of this heat treatment is to

raise the temperature of the steel and hold
it to allow the hydrogen to diffuse out.

The hold time varies depends upon the

material and section thickness with
temperature upto 450°C and the time
between one and 48 hours .
 Pre heating

The objective is to

(a) Reduce the rate of cooling

(b) Allow the Hydrogen to diffuse away

from the weld at a faster rate

(c) Pre heating also drives away the

moisture from the weld areas
 Pre heating
The objective is to
• Reducing the residual stresses already
present
• Preheating also makes it easier to weld
materials having high thermal
conductivity like copper and
Aluminium by compensating for the heat
that dissipates rapidly
• Uniform preheating reduces the
distortion due to welding
 Post Heating

This is an extension of preheat

Post heating is performed after

welding
 Post Weld Heat Treatment
It consists of heating the weldments at a controlled
rate to temperature range below the transformation
temperature (AC1) and holding it at the temperature
for certain time and cooling it down at a controlled
rate.

The lower and upper critical temperature indicate

where the crystal structure of steel begins and
finally completes a change from BCC structure to
FCC structure.
 Post weld Heat Treatment

The objective of PWHT:

 Relieve the residual stresses.

 Improves ductility & toughness

and reduce HAZ hardness

 Improving the machinability and

dimensional stability after
machining
 Post weld Heat Treatment

The objective of PWHT:

 diffusion of hydrogen from the joint
and reduce the susceptibility to
cracking.
 It is usually applied to higher
strength carbon-Mn steels and low alloy
steel
 Post weld Heat Treatment

The PWHT is usually carried-out by

heating the whole assembly in a furnace
or a oven.

Where the assembly exceeds the size of

available furnace or for welds done in
field fabrication, localized heat
treatment will be carried-out
 Post weld Heat Treatment

Depending upon the welding condition

and the knowledge of the earlier failures
 Post weld Heat Treatment

PWHT can have both beneficial

and detrimental effects.

 Post weld Heat Treatment

Benefits :

Relaxation of residual stresses

Adequate hydrogen removal

Improved mechanical properties

 Post weld Heat Treatment

Detrimental effects

Excessive or in appropriate PWHT

temperature and long holding time can
adversely affect properties

The influence/effect of PWHT depends

upon the composition and prior
mechanical processing of the base metal.
 Methods of Post weld Heat
Treatment

Using permanent furnaces

Local Heat treatment

By Induction Heating
By Resistance Heating
 Permanent Furnaces

Advantages:

The temperature distribution will

normally meet the requirements of
current fabrication, codes or customer
specifications

Uniform heating of complete structure

avoids inducing thermal stress as is the
case with local heat treatment.
 Permanent Furnaces

Advantages:

 Less labour utilization

 Cost effective and economical

method and one time capital
investment

 Minimizes delays to the production

programme
Local Post weld Heat
Treatment (LPWHT)
 Necessity for Local PWHT

This is carried-out
If the final fabrication is too large

If the component has to be erected at

site where there are no furnace available

During erection of pipe works on

engineering construction sites, repair
work, complex configurations
 Precautions to be taken

Control of heat loss during heating

During PWHT heat losses simultaneously

taking place due to
Conduction through the pipe wall on
either side
Convection by air movement inside
the pipe
Radiation losses
 Precautions to be taken

Control of heat loss during heating

To make most efficient use of the heating

source and to avoid excessive cooling rates
weld joint and the adjacent pipe is covered
with insulation

It is better to hold the insulation and the

heating elements with steel band
 Precautions to be taken

Control of heat loss during heating

To avoid air circulation inside the pipe

which can cause cooling of the inside
wall all openings in the pipe must be
closed with dummy covers before
starting of the cycle.
 Precautions to be taken

Measurement of temperature

 During the heat treatment cycle, the

temperature is measured and recorded
with the help of thermocouples and
recorders

 Normally chromel-Alumel thermocouples

are widely used.
 Precautions to be taken

Measurement of temperature

 Chromel wire is non magnetic and

connected to the positive terminal of the
powers source.

 The alumel wire is magnetic and

connected to the negative terminal.
 Precautions to be taken
Measurement of temperature

 The thermocouple wires are short. Hence

compensating cables are used

 Do not interchange the electric terminals

 Fixing the thermocouple on the spot is

very important as far as accuracy is
concerned

 Use capacitor discharge unit for fixing

thermocouples
 Precautions to be taken

Support of the pipe during heating

• During PWHT, the materials strength is

considerably low.
• With heavy wall piping, the weight of the
long span will cause permanent
deformation if it is unsupported
• Care should be taken to ensure that no
load including the self weight of the
pipe is coming on the weld during heat
treatment.
 Local Post weld Heat treatment
Induction Heating
Principle

Induction heating is produced by an

alternating low voltage, high current, applied
to coils wrapped around the pipe.

The magnetic field associated with the

current passing through the coil, penetrate
the pipe.

A current is induced in the pipe & resistance

to the induced current heats the pipe.
 Local Post weld Heat treatment

Induction Heating

Advantages
 High rate of heating is possible
 Temperature can be controlled within
narrow range
 Localized over heating is not produced
 The coils have longer life and so they
do not fail during heat treatment
 Local Post weld Heat treatment

Electrical Resistance Heating

Due to heavy cost of the induction

hating heating, PWHT users now-a-days
planning to switch over to electrical
resistance heating which is costing very
less as compared to induction heating
 Local Post weld Heat treatment
Electrical Resistance Heating
Advantages
 Continuous uniform heating can be
maintained
 Temperature can be adjusted quickly
and accurately
 Heating and welding can go on
simultaneously
 Differential heat input can be given
 Highly economical
 Local Post weld Heat treatment

Electrical Resistance Heating

Dis-advantages

Element burn out may take place causing

interruption

The resistance heating element can get

shorted with the pipe causing stray arc.

The open loop equipment operates at high

voltage
 Electrical Resistance Heating

Types of heating elements

Nichrome with ceramic beads
Flexible ceramic pads
Terminologies used in Local PWHT

 Soak Band

 Heat Band

 Soaking Temperature

 Soaking Time
 Definitions

SB
HB
GCB
W – Maximum width of weld thickness , T - Thickness

SB – Soaking Band ( Weld and HAZ)

HB – Heating Band ( Weld, HAZ and Part of PM under heat source)

GCB –Gradient Control Band

 Terminologies used in Local PWHT

Soak Band

The soak band consists if the weld metal,

HAZ and a portion of the base metal
adjacent to the weld being heated

The soak band is sized to to ensure that

the required volume of the metal
achieves the desired temperature
 Terminologies used in PWHT

Heated Band

The heated band consists of the surface area

(soak band plus portion of base metal) over
which the heat source is applied to achieve
the required temperature in the soak band
and limit induced stresses in the vicinity of
the weld.
 Terminologies used in PWHT

Gradient Control Band

The gradient control band consists of the

surface area over which insulation and heat
sources are placed

It encompass the soak band , heated band

and sufficient adjacent base metal
 Terminologies used in PWHT

Gradient Control Band serves two functions

 It minimizes heat losses in the heated

band

 It ensures the axial temperature

gradient within the heated band is not
exceeded
 Temperature gradients

A minimum axial temperature gradient

temperature at a distance of 2Rt from the
edge of the soak band be no less than one
half of the temperature at the edge of the
soak band during heating, hold and cooling
 Temperature gradients

Through thickness gradient

A close through thickness gradient are

required to be met in newly introduced
materials like X-20 and P91 steels to
prevent cracking

Close contact between the pipe and the

heating coil is necessary to obtain close
thermal gradient between OD and ID
 Parameters used in PWHT

• Heating Rate
• Cooling Rate
• Soaking Temperature
• Soaking Time
 Parameters used in PWHT

Heating Rate

The rate of heating during PWHT can affect

the temperature difference between the

outside and inside surfaces

 Parameters used in PWHT

Hold Temperature and Time

PWHT hold temperature and time

requirements are based on the type material
and the thickness
 Parameters used in PWHT

Cooling Rate

The cooling rate may maintained as that of

the heating rate
Standards Heating Rate Cooling Rate Soaking Time Width of the Insulated
Heating Band Band

AWS D1.1 <200°C per hour <260°C per hour 6.4 mm or less – 15 -- --
divided by the max divided by the max Minutes
metal thick of thicker metal thick of thicker
part part 6.4 mm to 50.8 mm
– 1 Hour per inch
Need not less than Need not less than
55°C 55°C Over 50.8 mm – 2
hours plus 15
minutes for each
additional inch

BS 2633 Upto including 25 Upto including 25 2.5 minutes per mm Width the heating
mm 220°C per hour mm 275°C per hour thickness band shall be atleast
5t
> 25 mm it is > 25 mm it is Minimum 30
5500°C/thickness or 6875°C/thickness or Minutes
55°C whichever is 55°C whichever is
greater greater

AS 1228 Thick <25 mm – Thick <25 mm – One hour per 25 mm Width of the heating Insulation
200°C per hour 200°C per hour of thickness band 5 root Rt band 10
root Rt
Thick > 25 mm Thick > 25 mm
5000°C/hour divided 6250°C/hour divided
by ax thick or 50°C by ax thick or 50°C
whichever is greater whichever is greater
Standards Heating Rate Cooling Rate Soaking Time Width of the Insulated
Heating Band Band

ASME Max Max 1 Hr per inch upto -- --

Sec. VIII 222°C/Hr/Thick 278°C/Hr/Thick 2”.

Min. 55°C per Min. 55°C per >2” - 2 hr plus 15

hour hour minutes for every
additional inches

BS 5500 6000°C/hr/thick 6000°C/hr/thick 2.5 minutes per Weld and HAZ 5 root Rt
mm thickness
Max 200°C/Hr Max 200°C/Hr

B31.1 <335°C/hr <335°C/hr 1 Hr per inch upto 3 times the Insulation

divided by 50% divided by 50% 2”. thickness of the band 10
of thickness in of thickness in pipe of thickest root Rt
inch inch >2” - 2 hr plus 15 part.
minutes for every
additional inches
Case study
Experiments carried-out at WRI

Pipes used for trials

Material : Carbon steel

OD : 458 mm
ID : 339 mm
Thickness : 57 mm
Length : 2.7 mts.
Experiments carried-out at WRI

Pipes used for trials

Material : P91 steel

OD : 325 mm
ID : 285 mm
Thickness : 20 mm
Length : 660 mm
Experiments carried-out at WRI

Pipes used for trials

Material : P22 steel

OD : 253.6 mm
Thickness : 47 mm
Length : 1.6 mts.
Experiments carried-out at WRI

Trials were carried-out with single

coils and split coil methods

Trials were carried-out with single

coils and split coil methods
Evaluation of Existing Practice
Experiments carried-out at WRI

Observation

In P91 the hardness measurements

were carried-out using portable
EUCOTIP unit

Initial Hardness measured : 197 Hv

Final Hardness measured : 173 Hv
 Experiments carried-out at WRI

Observation

Residual Stress Evaluation (in MPa)

Magnitude of residual stress before PWHT : -234

Magnitude of residual stress After PWHT : -73

 Experiments carried-out at WRI

Observation

Micro structural Evaluation

Microstructure was taken using replica and

electrolysis method

The grain size was changed from coarser to

finer after PWHT
Experiments carried-out at WRI

Conclusion

A temperature gradient of 30° can be

achieved with a lot of care and a
maximum of 50° with inadequate care.

Trials with split coil appears to give

better results