Conduction in

Metals

Hall effect, skin effect,

Temperature dependence of
resistivity
Conduction on Metals
 Metals conduct electricity by allowing free electrons to
move between the atoms.
 Metals are closely packed materials having lattice
structures called metallic lattices.
 Every atom in a metallic lattice is surrounded by a sea of
electrons.
 When electrons from the electric source (battery) come
along, lattice electrons are pushed out.
 Metals continue to do so (conduct electricity) until the
lattice electrons are being replaced, not removed.
 The electrons present in lattices of materials are
called free electrons.
 The word ‘free’ refers to, ‘being unbound’.
 The electrons are free of the atomic boundaries but
they are bonded to the surrounding atoms by
attractive forces called the metallic bond.
 Free electrons, being free to move in row formations,
as long as they are being replaced, ‘not removed’ are
the reason for electrical conductance among metals.
Structure of metallic lattice and free
electrons
Electric Current
 Electric current is the movement of electrons from a
substance. The flow of current is due to a potential
difference created at both ends of a substance.
 Ohm’s law states that:

The applied current is directly proportional to

an applied voltage.
V∝I
V = I.R
‘R’ is the proportionality constant called resistance.
Resistance
 Resistance (R) is the ability of materials to resist
the flow of electricity through them.
 It is the loss of electrons from the battery source.
 Some electrons enter a substance through one side
but never leave the other one, meaning that the
reduction in the number of electrical charges
during conduction is termed resistance.
The resistance of a substance depends on the
following parameters:
 Length of the wire or metal piece, the subject of
conduction.
 The width of the wire provided that, electrons are
driven perpendicularly to the width.
 The cross-sectional area of metallic substance,
conducting electrons.
 The nature of conducting materials.
Conduction band theory
 According to conduction band theory, the valence
and conduction bands in metals are very close to
each other.
 It looks like they overlap one another.
 When metals are connected to a source (battery),
electrons of the valence band may jump into the
conduction band, easily.
 These electrons and this jumping are responsible
for the conduction property of metals.
Conduction Band Theory
Types of electric conductors
There are three types of electric conductors:
 Conductors
 Semiconductors
 Insulators
According to Conduction Band
Theory:
 Metals are conductors with an overlap between
conduction and valence bands.
 Semi-conductors are intermediates with a small
difference between valence and conduction bands.
 Insulators have a large difference between
valence and conduction band which becomes the
reason why, insulators cannot promote their
electrons to the conduction band in order to
become conductors.
Electric Conductivity

 Electric conductivity is the reciprocal of the Resistivity of a

substance.
 Resistivity is the ‘retardation per unit length’ of electron flow in
a circuit.

where,
 R = Resistance
 ρ = resistivity
 L = length of conduction region in a wire
 A = Cross-sectional area of a metal
Effect of temperature on conduction

 By increasing the temperature, the vibrations of

atoms increase.
 These vibrations lead to a large number of
increased collisions due to which, the availability
of free electrons is diminished.
 Hence, conductivity decreases by increasing the
temperature.
Alloys and their conductivity:
 When different metals are fused together, a solid-
solid solution is formed, called an alloy.
 Usually, metals are alloyed to increase their
strength. But it may decrease their conductivity.
Hall Effect
 Hall effect is a process in which a transverse
electric field is developed in a solid material when
the material carrying an electric current is placed
in a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the
current.
 The Hall effect was discovered by Edwin Herbert
Hall in 1879.
Principle of Hall Effect
 The principle of the Hall effect states that when a
current-carrying conductor or a semiconductor is
introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a
voltage can be measured at the right angle to the
current path.
 This effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is
known as the Hall effect.
Applications of Hall Effect

Hall effect principle is employed in the following cases:

 Magnetic field sensing equipment
 For the measurement of direct current, Hall effect Tong
Tester is used.
 It is used in phase angle measurement
 Proximity detectors
 Hall effect Sensors and Probes
 Linear or Angular displacement transducers
 For detecting wheel speed and accordingly assist the anti-
lock braking system.
Skin Effect
In electromagnetism, skin effect is the tendency of
an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed
within a conductor such that the current density is largest near
the surface of the conductor and decreases exponentially with
greater depths in the conductor.
The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor,
between the outer surface and a level called the skin depth.
 Skin depth depends on the frequency of the
alternating current; as frequency increases, current
flow becomes more concentrated near the surface,
resulting in less skin depth.
 Skin effect reduces the effective cross-section of
the conductor and thus increases its
effective resistance.