Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
“electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other methods such as Remote
Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen Noise also use this principle.

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating
current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor. This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the
current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this
changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents are induced
electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a
liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and
measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

• Crack Detection
• Material Thickness Measurements
• Coating Thickness Measurements
• Conductivity Measurements For:
o Material Identification
o Heat Damage Detection
o Case Depth Determination
o Heat Treatment Monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Some of the limitation of eddy current inspection include:

• Only conductive materials can be inspected

• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan
direction are undetectable.

History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing has its origins with Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction
in 1831. Faraday was a chemist in England during the early 1800's and is credited with the discovery of
electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic rotations, the magneto-optical effect, diamagnetism, and many
other discoveries. In 1879, another scientist named Hughes recorded changes in the properties of a coil
when placed in contact with metals of different conductivity and permeability. However, it was not until
the Second World War that these effects were put to practical use for testing materials. Much work was
done in the 1950's and 60's, particularly in the aircraft and nuclear industries. Eddy current testing is now a
widely used and well-understood inspection technique.

Properties of Electricity

Since eddy current inspection makes use of electromagnetic induction, it is important to know
about the scientific principles of electricity and magnetism. For a review of these principles, the Science
of NDT materials on this Internet site may be helpful. A review of the key parameters will be provided
here.

Electricity

It is well known that one of the subatomic particles of an atom is the electron. Atoms can and
usually do have a number of electrons circling its nucleus. The electrons carry a negative electrostatic
charge and under certain conditions can move from atom to atom. The direction of movement between
atoms is random unless a force causes the electrons to move in one direction. This directional movement
of electrons due to some imbalance of force is what is known as electricity.

Amperage

The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short. An amp is the amount
of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons, having one coulomb of charge, moves past a
given point in one second. A coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25 x 10^18 electrons or
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

Electromagnetic Force

The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is called the electromotive force,
or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of EMF as electrical pressure. In other words, it is the force
that makes electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor. There are many sources of EMF; the
most common being batteries and electrical generators.

The Volt

The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the electrostatic difference between
two points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
A joule is the amount of energy that is being consumed when one watt of power works for one second.
This is also known as a watt-second. For our purposes, just accept the fact that one joule of energy is a
very, very small amount of energy. For example, a typical 60-watt light bulb consumes about 60 joules of
energy each second it is on.

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical current through it,
resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms of energy. The amount of
resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low resistance are good conductors of
electricity. Materials with high resistance are good insulators.

Current Flow and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law is the most important, basic law of electricity. It defines the relationship between the
three fundamental electrical quantities: current, voltage, and resistance. When a voltage is applied to a
circuit containing only resistive elements (i.e. no coils), current flows according to Ohm's Law, which is
shown below.
 I=V/R

I= Electrical Current (Amperes) V= Voltage (Voltage) R= Resistance (Ohms)

Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is proportional to the voltage
(V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). Therefore, if the voltage is increased, the current will
increase provided the resistance of the circuit does not change. Similarly, increasing the resistance of the
circuit will lower the current flow if the voltage is not changed. The formula can be reorganized so that the
relationship can easily be seen for all of the three variables.

Induction and Inductance

Induction

In 1824 Oersted discovered that current passing though a coil created a magnetic field capable of
shifting a compass needle. Seven years later Faraday and Henry discovered just the opposite. They noticed
that a moving magnetic field would induce current in an electrical conductor. This process of generating
electrical current in a conductor by placing the conductor in a changing magnetic field is called
electromagnetic induction or just induction. It is called induction because the current is said to be induced
in the conductor by the magnetic field.

Faraday also noticed that the rate at which the magnetic field changed also had an effect on the
amount of current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for an uncoiled conductor states that the
amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux lines cutting the conductor.
Faraday's Law for a straight wire is shown below.

VL = the induced voltage in volts dø/dt = the rate of change in magnetic flux in webers/second

Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H) which reflects this dependence on the rate of change
of the magnetic field. One henry is the amount of inductance that is required to generate one volt of
induced voltage when the current is changing at the rate of one ampere per second. Note that current is
used in the definition rather than magnetic field. This is because current can be used to generate the
magnetic field and is easier to measure and control than magnetic flux..

Inductance

When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is called
inductance, L. Self-inductance, or simply inductance is the property of a circuit whereby a change in
current causes a change in voltage in the same circuit. When one circuit induces current flow in a second
nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance. The image to the right shows an example of mutual-
inductance. When an AC current is flowing through a piece of wire in a circuit, an electromagnetic field is
produced that is constantly growing and shrinking and changing direction due to the constantly changing
current in the wire. This changing magnetic field will induce electrical current in another wire or circuit
that is brought close to the wire in the primary circuit. The current in the second wire will also be AC and
in fact will look very similar to the current flowing in the first wire. An electrical transformer uses
inductance to change the voltage of electricity into a more useful level. In nondestructive testing,
inductance is used to generate eddy currents in the test piece.

It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible for inductance, it
is only present in AC circuits and that high frequency AC will result in greater inductive reactance since
the magnetic field is changing more rapidly.

Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance

The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction. Self inductance

is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current in the wire itself is
changing. In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing current in the circuit
itself induces a voltage in the same circuit. Therefore, the voltage is self-induced.

The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of inductance and a
coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a coil or wire is usually used to indicate an
inductive component. Taking a closer look at a coil will help understand the reason that a voltage is
induced in a wire carrying a changing current. The alternating current running through the coil creates a
magnetic field in and around the coil that is increasing and decreasing as the current changes. The
magnetic field forms concentric loops that surrounds the wire and joins up to form larger loops that
surround the coil as shown in the image below. When the current increases in one loop the expanding
magnetic field will cut across some or all of the neighboring loops of wire, inducing a voltage in these
loops. This causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when the current is changing.

By studying this image of a coil, it can be seen that the number of turns in the coil will have an
effect on the amount of voltage that is induced into the circuit. Increasing the number of turns or the rate
of change of magnetic flux increases the amount of induced voltage. Therefore, Faraday's Law must be
modified for a coil of wire and becomes the following.

VL = the induced voltage in volts N = the number of turns in the coil

dø/dt = the rate of change in magnetic flux in webers per second

The equation simply states that the amount of induced voltage (VL) is proportional to the number
of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the magnetic flux (dø/dt). In other words, when the frequency
of the flux is increased or the number of turns in the coil is increased, the amount of induced voltage will
also increase.

In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure magnetic flux so the
following equation can be used to determine the induced voltage if the inductance and frequency of the
current are known. This equation can also be reorganized to allow the inductance to be calculated when
the amount of inducted voltage can be determined and the current frequency is known.
 VL = the induced voltage in volts L = the value of inductance in henries
di/dt = the rate of change in current in amperes per second

Lenz's Law

Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz developed a rule for determining
the direction of the induced current in a loop. Basically, Lenz's law states that an induced current has a
direction such that its magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic field that induced the current. This
means that the current induced in a conductor will oppose the change in current that is causing the flux to
change. Lenz's law is important in understanding the property of inductive reactance, which is one of the
properties measured in eddy current testing.

Inductive Reactance

The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive reactance. By taking
a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it can be seen how inductance reduces the flow of
current in the circuit. In the image below, the direction of the primary current is shown in red, and the
magnetic field generated by the current is shown in blue. The direction of the magnetic field can be
determined by taking your right hand and pointing your thumb in the direction of the current. Your fingers
will then point in the direction of the magnetic field. It can be seen that the magnetic field from one loop
of the wire will cut across the other loops in the coil and this will induce current flow (shown in green) in
the circuit. According to Lenz's law, the induced current must flow in the opposite direction of the primary
current. The induced current working against the primary current results in a reduction of current flow in
the circuit.

It should be noted that inductive reactance will increase if the number of winds in the coil is
increased since the magnetic field from one coil will have more coils to interact with.

Since inductive reactance reduces the flow of current in a circuit, it appears as an energy loss just
like resistance. However, it is possible to distinguish between resistance and inductive reactance in a
circuit by looking at the timing between the sine waves of the voltage and current of the alternating
current. In an AC circuit that contains only resistive components, the voltage and the current will be in-
phase, meaning that the peaks and valleys of their sine waves will occur at the same time. When there is
inductive reactance present in the circuit, the phase of the current will be shifted so that its peaks and
valleys do not occur at the same time as those of the voltage. This will be discussed in more detail in the
section on circuits
 Mutual Inductance (The Basis for Eddy Current Inspection)

The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit and the currents in
other nearby circuits, assuming that there are no nearby permanent magnets. Consider the following two
circuits.

The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and create current flow.
The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own magnetic field which will interact with the
magnetic field of circuit 1. At some point P on the magnetic field consists of a part due to i1 and a part due
to i2. These fields are proportional to the currents producing them.

The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the self inductance of each of
the coils. The values of L1 and L2 depend on the geometrical arrangement of the circuit (i.e. number of
turns in the coil) and the conductivity of the material. The constant M, called the mutual inductance of the
two circuits and it is dependent on the geometrical arrangement of both circuits. In particular, if the
circuits are far apart, the magnetic flux through circuit 2 due to the current i1 will be small and the mutual
inductance will be small. L2 and M are constants.

We can write the flux, B through circuit 2 as the sum of two parts.

B2 = L2i2 + i1M

An equation similar to the one above can be written for the flux through circuit 1.

B1 = L1i1 + i2M

Though it is certainly not obvious, it can be shown that the mutual inductance is the same for both
circuits. Therefore, it can be written as follows:

M1,2 = M2,1

How is mutual induction used in eddy current inspection?

In eddy current inspection, the eddy currents are generated in the test material due to mutual
induction. The test probe is basically a coil of wire through which alternating current is passed. Therefore,
when the probe is connected to an eddyscope instrument, it is basically represented by circuit one above.
The second circuit can be any piece of conductive material.

When alternating current is passed through the coil, a magnetic field is generated in and around
the coil. When the probe is brought in close proximity to a conductive material, such as aluminum, the
probes changing magnetic field generates current flow in the material. The induced current flows in closed
loops in planes perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They are named eddy currents because they are
thought to resemble the eddy currents that can be seen swirling in streams.

The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that interact with the primary magnetic field
of the coil. By measuring changes in the resistance and inductive reactance of the coil, information can be
gathered about the test material. This information includes the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of the material, the amount of material cutting through the coils magnetic field, and the
condition of the material (i.e. whether it contains cracks or other defects.) The distance that the coil is
from the conductive material is called liftoff, and this distance affects the mutual-inductance of the
circuits. Liftoff can be used to make measurements of the thickness of nonconductive coating such as
paint that hold the probe a certain distance from the surface of the conductive material.

It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux is concentrated and
strengthened despite opposing eddy current affects. The increase inductive reactance due to the magnetic
permeability of ferromagnetic materials makes it easy to distinguish these materials from
nonferromagnetic materials.

Circuits and Phase

A circuit can be thought of as a closed path in which current flows through the components that
make up the circuit. The current (i) obeys Ohm's Law. The simple circuit below consists of a voltage
source (in this case an alternating current voltage source) and a resistor. The graph below the circuit
diagram shows the value of the voltage and the current for this circuit over a period of time. This graph
shows one complete cycle of an alternating current source. From the graph, it can be seen that as the
voltage increases so does the current. The voltage and the current are said to be "in-phase" since their zero,
peak, and valley points occur at the same time. They are also directly proportional to each other.

In the circuit below, the resistive component has been replaced with an inductor. When inductance
is introduced into a circuit, the voltage and the current will be "out-of-phase," meaning that the voltage
and current do not cross zero, or reach their peaks and valleys at the same time. When a circuit has an
inductive component, the current (iL) will lags the voltage by one quarter of a cycle. One cycle is often
referred to as 360 degree, so it can be said that the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees.

The resistive and inductive components are of primary interest in eddy current testing since the test
probe is basically a coil of wire, which will have both resistance and inductive reactance. However, for the
sake of completeness, capacitance also needs to be mentioned. This simple circuit below consists of an
alternating current voltage source and a capacitor. Capacitance in a circuit caused the current (ic) to lead
the voltage by one quarter of a cycle (90 degrees current lag).
 When there is both resistance and inductive reactance (and/or capacitance) in a circuit, the
combined opposition to current flow is known as impedance.

Impedance

Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to alternating current.
Impedance is measured in ohms and may include resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive
reactance (XC). However, the total impedance is not simply the algebraic sum of resistance, inductive
reactance, and capacitive reactance. Since the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are 90 degrees
out of phase with the resistance and, therefore, their maximum values occur at different times, vector
addition must be used to calculate impedance.

In the image below, a circuit diagram is shown that represents an eddy current inspection system.
The eddy current probe is a coil of wire so it contains resistance and inductive reactance when driven by
alternating current. The capacitive reactance (XC) can be dropped as most eddy current probes have little
or no capacitive reactance. The solid line in the graph below shows the circuit's total current, which is
affected by the total impedance of the circuit. The two dashed lines represent the portion of the current
that is affected by the resistance and the inductive reactance components individually. It can be seen that
the resistance and the inductive reactance lines are 90 degrees out of phase, so when combined to produce
the impedance line, the phase shift is somewhere between zero and 90 degrees. The phase shift is always
relative to the resistance line since the resistance line is always in-phase with the voltage. If more
resistance than inductive reactance is present in the circuit then the impedance line will move toward the
resistance line and the phase shift will decrease. If more inductive reactance is present in the circuit then
the impedance line will shift toward the inductive reactance line and the phase shift will increase.

The relationship between impedance and its individual components (resistance and inductive
reactance) can be represented using vector as shown below. The amplitude of the resistance component is
shown by a vector along the x-axis and the amplitude of the inductive reactance is shown by a vector
along the y-axis. The amplitude of the the impedance is shown by a vector that stretches from zero to a
point that represents both the resistance value in the x-direction and the inductive reactance in the y-
direction. Eddy current instruments with impedance plane displays present information in this format.

The impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance can be calculated using the
following equation. If capacitive reactance was present in the circuit, its value would be added to the
inductance term before squaring.
 The phase angle of the circuit of the circuit can be calculated using the equation below. If
capacitive reactance was present in the circuit, its value would be subtracted from the inductive reactance
term.

Impedance and Ohm's Law

In previous pages, Ohm's Law was discussed for a purely resistive circuit. When there is inductive
reactance or capacitive reactance also present in the circuit, Ohm's Law must be written to include the
total impedance in the circuit. Therefore, Ohm's law becomes:

I=V/Z

Ohm's law now simply states that the current (I), in amperes, is proportional to the voltage (V), in
volts, divided by the impedance (Z), in ohms.

Also note that when there is inductance in the circuit, the voltage and current are out of phase. This
is because the voltage across the inductor will be a maximum when the rate of change of current is
greatest. For a sinusoidal wave form like AC, this is at the point where the actual current is zero. Thus the
voltage applied to an inductor reaches its maximum value a quarter-cycle before the current does - the
voltage is said to lead the current by 90 degrees.

Depth of Penetration & Current Density

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited to the area of the
inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their
strength decreases with distance from the coil as shown in the image. Eddy current density decreases
exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect.

Skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any depth produce magnetic
fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current
flow as depth increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's
magnetic field, thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing induced currents.

The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the excitation
current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen. The depth of
penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing conductivity and magnetic permeability.
The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface density, is
called the standard depth of penetration ( ). The word 'standard' denotes plane wave electromagnetic field
excitation within the test sample (conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy
currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration they decrease rapidly with depth. At two
standard depths of penetration (2 ), eddy current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the
surface density. At three depths (3 ) the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.

Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current density at the
defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy currents at this location. When attempting
to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the expected flaw depth within one standard
depth of penetration. This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy currents will be sufficient to
produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using eddy currents to measure the electrical conductivity of
a material, the frequency is often set so that it produces three standard depths of penetration within the
material. This helps to assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that
changes in the material thickness will not affect the eddy current measurements.

One should also note that although the currents are restricted to flow within specimen boundaries,
the magnetic field extends into the air space beyond. This allows the inspection of multilayer components
separated by an air space.

Phase Lag

Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain information
about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the shift in time between the eddy current
response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at some distance below the surface. The
generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a diffusion process meaning that the eddy currents below
the surface take a little longer to form than those at the surface. Therefore, subsurface defects will be
detected by the eddy current instrument a little later in time than surface defects. Both the signal voltage
and current will have this phase shift or lag with depth, which is different from the phase angle discussed
earlier. (With the phase angle, the current shifted with respect to the voltage.)

Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it possible to estimate
the depth of a defect and with proper reference specimens, determine the rough size of a defect. The signal
produced by a flaw depends on both amplitude and phase of the eddy currents being disrupted. A small
surface defect and large internal defect can have a similar effect on the magnitude of test coil impedance.
However, because of the increasing phase lag with depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the
test coil impedance vector.

At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is 57 degrees or one radian. This means that the
eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration ( ) below the surface, lag the surface currents
by 57 degrees. At two standard depths of penetration (2 ) they lag the surface currents by 114 degrees.
Therefore by measuring the phase lag of a signal, the depth of a defect can be estimated.
 Present State of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is used in a variety of industries to find defects and make measurements.
One of the primary uses of eddy current testing is for defect detection when the nature of the defect is well
understood. In general the technique is used to inspect a relatively small area and the probe design and test
parameters must be established with a good understanding of the flaw that is trying to be detected. Since
eddy currents tend to concentrate at the surface of a material, they can only be used to detect surface and
near surface defects.

In thin materials such as tubing and sheet stock, eddy currents can be used to measure the
thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for detecting corrosion damage and other
damage that causes a thinning of the material. The technique is used to make corrosion thinning
measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in assemblies such as heat exchangers.
Eddy current testing is also used to measure the thickness of paints and other coatings.

Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of
materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be used to sort materials and to tell if a material has
seen high temperatures or been heat treated, which changes the conductivity of some materials.

Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of configurations.
Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very small and battery operated units for easy
portability. Computer based systems are also available that provide easy data manipulation features for the
laboratory. Signal processing software has also been developed for trend removal, background subtraction,
and noise reduction. Impedance analyzer are also sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-
current measurements. Some laboratories have multidimensional scanning capability that are used to
produce images of the scan regions. A few portable scanning systems also exist for special applications
such as scanning regions of aircraft fuselage.

Research to Improve Eddy current measurements

A great deal of research continues to be done to improve eddy current measurement techniques. A
few of the these activities, which are being conducted at Iowa State University are described below.

Photo-inductive-Imaging(PI)

A technique known as photoinductive imaging (PI) was pioneered at CNDE and provides a
powerful, high-resolution scanning and imaging tool. Microscopic resolution is available using standard-
sized eddy-current sensors. Development of probes and instrumentation for photoinductive (PI) imaging is
based on the use of a medium-power (5 W nominal power) argon ion laser. This probe provides high
resolution images and has been used to study cracks, welds, and diffusion bonds in metallic specimens.
The PI technique is being studied as a way to image local stress variations in steel.

Pulsed-Eddy-Current

Research is currently being conducted on the use of a technique called pulsed eddy current (PEC)
testing. This technique can be used for the detection and quantification of corrosion and cracking in multi-
layer aluminum aircraft structures. Pulsed eddy-current signals consist of a spectrum of frequencies
meaning that, because of the skin effect, each pulse signal contains information from a range of depths
within a given test specimen. In addition, the pulse signals are very low-frequency rich which provides
excellent depth penetration. Unlike multi-frequency approaches, the pulse-signals lend themselves to
convenient analysis. .

Measurements have been carried out both in the laboratory and in the field. Corrosion trials have
demonstrated how material loss can be detected and quantified in multi-layer aluminum structures. More
recently, studies carried out on three- and four-layer structures show the ability to locate cracks emerging
from fasteners. Pulsed eddy-current measurements have also been applied to ferromagnetic materials,
recent work has been involved with measuring case depth in hardened steel samples.

Eddy Current Instruments

Eddy current instruments can be purchased in a large variety of configurations. Both analog and
digital instruments are available. Instruments are commonly classified by the type of display used to
present the data. The common display types are analog meter, digital readout, impedance plane and time
versus signal amplitude. Some instruments are capable of presenting data in several display formats.

The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current source, a coil of
wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the voltage change across the coil. An ammeter
could also be used to measure the current change in the circuit instead of using the voltmeter.

While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this type of an equipment,
most eddy current instruments are a bit more sophisticated. In the following pages, a few of the more
important aspects of eddy current instrumentation will be discussed.

Resonant Circuits

Every circuit containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant frequency that is inversely
proportional to the square root of the product of the capacitance and inductance.

Circuits not containing discreet components for resistance, capacitance, and inductance can still
exhibit their effects. For example, a coaxial cable used to interconnect pieces of electronic equipment or
equipment to probes, has some capacitance and inductance. These capacitances and inductances
distributed throughout the cable are very small, but not negligible in sensitive circuits.

Bridges

The bridge circuit shown in the applet below is known as the Maxwell-Wien bridge (often called
the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and
capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar
precision, and so the use of a simple "symmetrical" inductance bridge is not always practical. Because the
phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can
balance out an inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as they are here.

Unlike this straight Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is independent of source
frequency, and in some cases this bridge can be made to balance in the presence of mixed frequencies
from the AC voltage source, the limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide frequency range.

In the simplest implementation, the standard capacitor (Cs) and the resistor in parallel with it are
made variable, and both must be adjusted to achieve balance. However, the bridge can be made to work if
the capacitor is fixed (non-variable) and more than one resistor is made variable (at least the resistor in
parallel with the capacitor, and one of the other two). However, in the latter configuration it takes more
trial-and-error adjustment to achieve balance as the different variable resistors interact in balancing
magnitude and phase.

Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather than a symmetrical
inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error due to mutual inductance between two
inductors. Magnetic fields can be difficult to shield, and even a small amount of coupling between coils in
a bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no second inductor to react within the
Maxwell bridge, this problem is eliminated.

Display - Complex Impedance Plane (eddy scope)

Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to an alternating current.
Impedance, measured in ohms, may include resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive
reactance (XC). Eddy current circuits usually have only R and XL components. As discussed in the page
on impedance, the resistance component and the reactance components are not in phase so vector addition
must be used to relate them with impedance. For an eddy current circuit with resistance and inductive
reactance components, the total impedance is calculated using the following equation.

You will recall that this can be graphically displayed using the impedance plane diagram as seen to
the right. Impedance also has an associated angle, called the phase angle of the circuit, which can be
calculated by the following equation.

The impedance plane diagram is a very useful way of displaying eddy current data. As shown in
the figure below, the strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic permeability of the test material cause
the eddy current signal on the impedance plane to react in a variety of different ways.

If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed on a piece of aluminum, the resistance
component will increase (eddy currents are being generated in the aluminum and this takes energy away
from the coil and this energy loss shows up as resistance) and the inductive reactance of the coil decreases
(the magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's magnetic field and the net effect is a
weaker magnetic field to produce inductance). If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents
will be able to form and the resistance will go back down and the inductive reactance will go back up.
Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to change in a different way.
 When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel, something different happens. Just like
with aluminum (conductive but not magnetic) eddy currents form which takes energy away from the coil
and this shows up as an increase in the coils resistance. And, just like with the aluminum, the eddy
currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the coils magnetic field. However, you will note
for the diagram that the reactance increase. This is because the magnetic permeability of the steel
concentrates the coil's magnetic field this increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows
the magnetic field of the eddy currents. The presence of a crack or a change in the conductive will produce
a change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen with aluminum.

Display - Analog Meter

Analog instruments are the simplest of the instruments available for eddy current inspections. They
are used for crack detection, corrosion inspection, or conductivity testing. These types of instruments
contain a simple bridge circuit, which compares a balancing load to that measured on the test specimen. If
any changes in the test specimen occur which deviate from normal you will see a movement on the
instruments meter.

Analog meters such as the D'Arsonval design pictured in the applet below, must "rectify" the AC
into DC. This is most easily accomplished through the use of devices called diodes. Without going into
elaborate detail over how and why diodes work as they do, remember that they each act like a one-way
valve for electrons to flow. They act as a conductor for one polarity and an insulator for another. Arranged
in a bridge, four diodes will serve to steer AC through the meter movement in a constant direction.

An analog meter can easily measure just a few microamperes of current and is well suited for use
in balancing bridges.

Probes - Mode of Operation

Eddy current probes are available in a large variety shapes and sizes. In fact, one of the major
advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom designed for a wide variety of
applications. Eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and mode of operation of the test
coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best
"couple" to the test area of interest. An example of different configurations of probes would be bobbin
probes, which are inserted into a piece of pipe to inspect from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in
which the coil or coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the outside in. The mode of operation refers to the
way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the test equipment. The mode of operation of a probe
generally falls into one of four categories: Absolute, differential, reflection and hybrid. Each of these
classifications will be discussed in more detail below.
 Absolute Probes

Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy currents and
sense changes in the eddy current field. As discussed in the physics section, AC is passed through the coil
and this sets-up a expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the coil. When the probe is
positioned next to a conductive material, the changing magnetic field generate eddy currents within the
material. The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this appears as an increase in
the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the
magnetic field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring the absolute
change in impedance of the test coil, much information can be gained about the test material.

Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff measurements
and thickness measurements. They are widely used due to their versatility. Since absolute probes are
sensitivity to things such as conductivity, permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be taken to
minimize these variables when they are not important to the inspection being performed. It is very
common for commercially available absolute probes to have a fixed "air loaded" reference coil that
compensates for ambient temperature variations.

Differential Probes

Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, although they could be
wound in addition with similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of test sample, there is
no differential signal developed between the coils since they are both inspecting identical material.
However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over good material, a differential signal is
produced. They have the advantage of being very sensitive to defect yet relatively insensitive to slowly
varying properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature variations. Probe wobble signals are also
reduced with this probe type. There are also disadvantages to using differential probes. Most notably, the
signals may be difficult to interpret. For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing between the two
coils, only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when both coils sense
the flaw equally.

Reflection Probes

Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is used to excite the
eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in the test material. Probes of this arrangement are
often referred to as driver/pickup probes. The advantage of reflection probes is that driver and pickup coils
can be separately optimized for their intended purpose. The driver coil can be made so as to produce a
strong and uniform flux field in the vicinity of the pickup coil; while the pickup coil can be made very
small so that it will be sensitive to very small defects.

The through-transmission method is sometimes used when complete penetration of plates and tube
walls is required.
 Hybrid Probes

An example of a hybrid probe is the split D, differential probe shown to the right. This probe has a
driver coil that surrounds two D shaped sensing coils. It operates in the reflection mode but additionally,
its sensing coils operate in the differential mode. This type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks.
Another example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a conventional coil to generate eddy currents in the
material but then uses a different type of sensor to detect changes on the surface and within the test
material. An example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a Hall effect sensor to detect changes in the
magnetic flux leaking from the test surface. Hybrid probes are usually specially designed for a specific
inspection application.

Probes - Configurations

As mentioned on the previous page, eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and
mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or
coils are packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. Some of the common classifications of
probes based on their configuration include surface probes, bolt hole probes, ID probes, and OD probes.

Surface Probes

Surface probes are usually designed to be handheld and are intended to be used in contact with the
test surface. Surface probes generally consist of a coil of very fine wire encased in a protective housing.
The size of the coil and shape of the housing are determined by the intended use of the probe. Most of the
coils are wound so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the test surface. This coil configuration is
sometimes referred to as a pancake coil and is good for detecting surface discontinuities that are oriented
perpendicular to the test surface. Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that are in a parallel plane to the
test surface will likely go undetected with this coil configuration.

Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large defects. They sample a
relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration. Since they do sample a large area, they are often
used for conductivity tests to get more of a bulk material measurement. However, their large sampling
area limits their ability to detect small discontinuities.

Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender housing to permit
inspection in restricted spaces. They are available with a straight shaft or with a bent shaft, which facilitate
easier handling and use in applications such as the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes are
prone to wobble due to their small base and sleeves are sometimes used to provide a wider base.

Bolt Hole Probes

Bolt hole probes are a special type of surface probe that is designed to be used with a bolt hole
scanner. They have a surface coil that is mounted inside a housing that matches the diameter of the hole
being inspected. The probe is inserted in the hole and the scanner rotates the probe within the hole.

ID or Bobbin Probes

ID probes, which are also referred to as Bobbin probes or feed-through probes, are inserted into
hollow products, such as a pipe, to inspect from the inside out. The ID probes have a housing that keep the
probe centered in the product and the coil(s) orientation somewhat constant relative to the test surface. The
coils are most commonly wound around the circumference of the probe so that the probe inspects an area
around the entire circumference of the test object at one time.

OD or Encircling Coils

OD probes are often called encircling coils. They are similar to ID probes except that the coil(s)
encircle the material to inspect from the outside in. OD probes are commonly used to inspect solid
products, such as bar.

Probes - Shielding & Loading

One of the challenges of performing an eddy current inspection, is getting sufficient eddy current
field strength in the region of interest within the material. Another challenge is keeping the field away
from nonrelevent features of the test component. Features that could produce a response that complicates
the desired signal information. Probe shielding and loading are sometimes used to limit the spread and
concentrate the magnetic field of the coil. Of course, if the magnetic field is concentrated near the coil, the
eddy currents will also be concentrated in this area.
 Probe Shielding

Probe shielding is used to prevent or reduce the interaction of the probes magnetic field with
nonrelevent features in close proximity of the probe. Shielding could be used to reduce edge effects when
testing near dimensional transitions such as a step or an edge. Shielding could also be used to reduce the
effects of conductive or magnetic fasteners in the region of testing.

Eddy current probes are most often shielded using magnetic shielding or eddy current shielding.
Magnetically shielded probes have their coil surrounded by a ring of ferrite or other material with high
permeability and low conductivity. The ferrite creates and area of low magnetic reluctance and the probe's
magnetic field is concentrated in this area rather than spreading beyond the shielding. This concentrates
the magnetic field into tighter area around the coil.

Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic material, usually copper,
to surround the coil. The portion of the coil's magnetic field that cuts across the shielding generates eddy
currents in the shielding material rather than in the nonrelevent features outside of the shielded area. The
higher the frequency of the current used to drive the probe, the more effective the shielding will be due to
skin effect in the shielding material.

Probe Loading with Ferrite Cores

Sometimes coils are wound around a ferrite core. Since ferrite is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux
produced by the coil prefers to travel through the ferrite than through air. Therefore, the ferrite core
concentrates the magnetic field near the center of the probe. This, in turn, concentrates the eddy currents
near the center of the probe. Probes with ferrite cores tend to be more sensitive than air core probes and
less affected by probe wobble and lift-off.

Coil (Probe) Design - Diameter

The most important feature in eddy current testing is the way in which the eddy currents are
induced and detected in the material under test. This depends on the design of the probe, which can
contain either one or more coils. A coil consists of a length of wire wound in a helical manner around the
length of a cylindrical tube or rod, called a former. The winding usually has more than one layer so as to
increase the value of inductance for a given length of coil.

It is desirable with eddy current testing that the wire is made from copper or other nonferrous
metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The main purpose of the former is to provide a sufficient
amount of rigidity in the coil to prevent distortion. Formers used for coils with diameters greater than a
few millimeters, e.g. encircling and pancake coils, generally take the form of tubes or rings made from
dielectric materials.

The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a solid material or just
air. Small-diameter coils are usually wound directly on to a solid core, which acts as the former. The
higher the inductance (L) of a coil, at a given frequency, the greater the sensitivity of eddy current testing.
It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high a current may produce

• a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the value of L.
• magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is used.

Coil (Probe) Design - Turns

As mentioned in the previous section, an important feature in eddy current testing is the way in
which the eddy currents are induced and detected in the material under test.

The winding usually has more than one layer so as to increase the value of inductance for a given
length of coil. It is desirable with eddy current testing that the wire is made from copper or other
nonferrous metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The main purpose of the former is to provide a
sufficient amount of rigidity in the coil to prevent distortion. Formers used for coils with diameters greater
than a few millimeters, e.g. encircling and pancake coils, generally take the form of tubes or rings made
from dielectric materials.

The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a solid material or just
air. Small-diameter coils are usually wound directly on to a solid core, which acts as the former. The
higher the inductance (L) of a coil, at a given frequency, the greater the sensitivity of eddy current testing.

Impedance Matching

Eddy current testing requires us to determine the components of the impedance of the detecting
coil or the potential difference across it. Most applications require the determination only of changes in
impedance, which can be measured with a high degree of sensitivity using an AC bridge. The principles of
operation of the most commonly used eddy current instruments are based on Maxwell's inductance bridge,
in which the components of the impedance of the detecting coil, commonly called a probe, are compared
with known variable impedances connected in series and forming the balancing arm of the bridge. Refer
back to Bridges.

The input to the bridge is an AC oscillator, often variable in both frequency and amplitude. The
detector arm takes the form of either a meter or a storage cathode-ray oscilloscope, a phase-sensitive
detector, a rectifier to provide a steady indication, and usually an attenuator to confine the output
indication within a convenient range. Storage facilities are necessary in the oscilloscope in order to retain
the signal from the detector for reference during scanning with the probe.
 The highest sensitivity of detection is achieved by properly matching the impedance of the probe to
the impedance of the measuring instrument. Thus, with a bridge circuit which is initially balanced, a
subsequent but usually small variation in the impedance of the probe upsets the balance, and a potential
difference appears across the detector arm of the bridge.

Although the Maxwell inductance bridge forms the basis of most eddy current instruments, there
are several reasons why it cannot be used in its simplest form (e.g. Hague, 1934), including the creation of
stray capacitances, such as those formed by the leads and leakages to earth. These unwanted impedances
can be eliminated by earthing devices and the addition of suitable impedances to produce one or more
wide-band frequency (i.e. low Q) resonance circuits. Instruments having a wide frequency range, e.g. from
1 kHz to 2 MHz, may possess around five of these bands to cover the range. The value of the impedance
of the probe is therefore an important consideration in achieving proper matching and, as a result, it may
be necessary to change the probe when switching from one frequency band to another.

Reference Standards

In eddy current testing, the use of reference standards in setting up the equipment is particularly
important since signals are affected by many different variables and slight changes in equipment setup can
drastically alter the appearance of a signal. As with most other NDT methods, the most useful information
is obtained when comparing the results from an unknown object to results from a similar object with well
characterized features and defects. In almost all cases, eddy current inspection procedures require the
equipment to be configured using reference standards.

For crack detection, corrosion thinning and other material damage, reference standards are used to
setup the equipment to produce a recognizable signal or set of signals from a defect or set of defects. In
many cases, the appearance of a test signal can be related to the appearance of a signal from a known
defect on the reference standard to estimate the size of a defect in the test component. Signals that vary
significantly from the responses produced by the reference standard must be further investigated to the
determine the source of the signal.

The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If this is not possible or
practical, it should be of material that has the same electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability.
Component features (material thickness, geometry and etc.) should be the same in the reference standard
as those in the test region of interest. If the reference standard is the type with intentional defects, these
defects should be as representative of actual defects in the test component as possible. The closer the
reference standard is to the actual test component, the better. However, since cracks and corrosion damage
are often difficult and costly to produce, artificial defects are commonly used. Narrow notches produced
with electron discharge machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to represent cracks, and
drilled holes are often used to simulate corrosion pitting.

Common eddy current reference standards include:

• Conductivity standards.
• Flat plate discontinuity standards.
 • Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).
• Tube discontinuity standards.
• Tube metal thinning standards.
• Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards.

Signal Filtering

Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted frequencies from the
receiver signal. While the correct filter settings can significantly improve the visibility of a defect signal,
incorrect setting can distort the signal presentation and even eliminate the defect signal completely.
Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of signal filtering.

Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, it is not directly related to the probe drive
frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a time versus signal amplitude display. With this
display mode, it is easy to see that the signal shape is dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil
is sensing something. For example, if a surface probe is placed on the surface of conductor and rocked
back and forth, it will produce a wave like signal. When the probe is rocked fast, the signal will have a
higher frequency than when the probe is rocked slowly back and forth. The signal doesn't need a wavelike
appearance to have frequency content and most eddy current signals will be composed of a large number
of frequencies. Consider a probe that senses a notch for 1/60th of a second. In a period of one second the
probe could (in theory) go over the notch 60 times, and, therefore the notch signal can be said to have a
frequency of 60Hz. But, imposed on this same signal, could be the signal resulting from probe wobble,
electronic noise, a conductivity shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.

Filters Effects

The two standard filters found in most impedance plane display instruments are the ‘High Pass
Filter’ (HPF), and ‘Low Pass Filter’ (LPF). Some instruments also have a‘Band Pass Filter’ (BPF), which
is a combination high and low pass filter. Filters are adjusted in Hertz (Hz).

The HPF allows high frequencies to pass and filters out the low frequencies. The HPF is basically
filtering out changes in the signal that occur over a significant period of time.

The LPF allows low frequency to pass and filters out the high frequency. In other words, all
portions of the signal that change rapidly (have a high slope) are filtered…features such as electronic
noise.

In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered out with a HPF and
then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a LPF to leave a clearing visible flaw indication. It
should also be noted that since flaw indication signals are comprised of multiple frequencies both filters
have a tendency to reduce the indication signal strength. Additionally, scan speed must be controlled when
using filters. Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF might filter out the flaw indication. Scan over the
flaw too fast and the LPF might eliminate the flaw indication.

Filter Settings

If the spectrum of the signal frequency and the signal amplitude or attenuation are plotted, the filter
responses can be illustrated in graphical form. The image to the right shows the response of a LPF of
20Hz and a HPF of 40Hz. The LPF allows only the frequencies in yellow pass and the HPF only allow
those frequencies in the blue area to pass. Therefore, it can be seen that with these settings there are no
frequencies that pass (i.e. the frequencies passed by the LPF are filtered out by the HPF and visa versa).

To create a window of acceptance for the signals, the filters need to overlap. In the image to the
right, the LPF has been adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to 10Hz. The area shown in gray is where the two
frequencies overlap and the signal is passed. A signal of 30Hz will get through at full amplitude, while a
signal of 15Hz will be attenuated by approximately 50%. All frequencies above or below the gray area
the passband) will be rejected by one of the two filters.

Use of Filters

The main function of the LPF is to remove high frequency interference noise. This noise can come
from a variety of sources including the instrumentation and/or the probe itself. The noise appears as an
unstable dot that produces jagged lines on the display as seen in signal from a surface notch shown in the
image below left. Lowering the LPF frequency will remove more of the higher frequencies from the signal
and produce a cleaner signal as shown in the center image below. When using a LPF, it should be set to
the highest frequency that produces a usable signal. To reduce noise in large surface or ring probes it may
be necessary to use a very low LPF setting (down to 10Hz). The lower the LPF setting, the slower the
scanning speed must be and the more closely it must be controlled. The image on the right below shows a
signal that has been clipped due to using too fast of a scan speed for the selected HPF setting.

The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow changes, such as
conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an edge while scanning parallel to it, or out-of-
round holes in fastener hole inspection. The HPF is useful when performing automated or semi-automted
scans to keep the signal from wandering too far from the null (balance) point. The most common
application for the HPF is the inspection of fastener holes using a rotating scanner. As the scanner rotates
at a constant RPM, the HPF can be adjusted to achieve the desired effect.

Use of the HPF when scanning manually is not recommended, as keeping a constant scanning
speed is difficult, and the signal deforms and amplitude decreases. The size of a signal decreases as the
scan speed decreases and a flaw indication can be eliminate completely if the scan is not done with
sufficient speed. In the images below, it can be seen that a typical response from a surface notch in
aluminum without HPF on the left, looks considerably different when the HPF is activated (right image).
With the HPF, looping signals with a positive and similar negative deflection are produced on the
impedance plane.

The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manual scanning if the operator
can largely control the scan speed and becomes familiar with the indication signal changes as scan speed
is varied slightly. An good example of such an application would be the manual scan of the radius of a
wheel that is rotated by hand, but the speed of rotation can be kept relatively constant.

Surface Breaking Cracks

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of applications such as the detection of cracks
(discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness, detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and
erosion, determination of coating thickness, and the measurement of electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability. Eddy currents inspection is an excellent method for detecting surface and near surface
defects when the probable defect location and orientation is well known.
 Defects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt the path of eddy currents and weaken their
strength. The images to the right show an eddy current surface probe on the surface of a conductive
component. The strength of the eddy currents under the coil of the probe in indicated by color. In the
lower image, there is a flaw under the right side of the coil and it can be see that the eddy currents are
weaker in this area.

Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface finish and condition of the material, the
design of the probe, and many other factors can affect the sensitivity of the inspection. Successful
detection of surface breaking and near surface cracks requires:

1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.

2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the part and the coil
must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the frequency should be
as high as possible for maximum resolution and high sensitivity. For subsurface flaws, lower
frequencies are necessary to get the required depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity.
Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even lower frequency to arrive
at some level of penetration.
4. Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being inspected and with
features that are representative of the defect or condition being inspected for.

The basic steps in performing an inspection with a surface probe are the following:

1. Select and setup the instrument and probe.

2. Select a frequency to produce the desired depth of penetration.
3. Adjust the instrument to obtain an easily recognizable defect response using a calibration
standard or setup specimen.
4. Place the inspection probe (coil) on the component surface and null the instrument.
5. Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide complete coverage of
the area being inspected. Care must be taken to maintain the same probe-to-surface orientation as
probe wobble can affect interpretation of the signal. In some cases, fixtures to help maintain
orientation or automated scanners may be required.
6. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance that will occur as the probe moves over
a discontinuity.

Surface Crack Detection Using Sliding Probes

Many commercial aircraft applications involve the use of multiple fasteners to connect the
multilayer skins. Because of the fatigue stress that is caused by the typical application of any commercial
aircraft, fatigue cracks can be induced in the vicinity of the fastener holes. In order to inspect the fastener
holes in an adequate amount of time, sliding probes are an efficient method of inspection.

Sliding probes have been named so because they move over fasteners in a sliding motion. There
are two types of sliding probes, fixed and adjustable, which are usually operated in the reflection mode.
This means that the eddy currents are induced by the driver coil and detected by a separate receiving coil.
 Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of fastener holes. They are
capable of detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities, but they can only detect defects in one
direction. The probes are marked with a detection line to indicate the direction of inspection. In order to
make a complete inspection there must be two scans that are 90 degrees separated from each other.

Probes Types

Fixed Sliding Probes

These probes are generally used for thinner material compared to the adjustable probes. Maximum
penetration is about 1/8 inch. Fixed sliding probes are particularly well suited for finding longitudinal
surface or subsurface cracks such as those found in lap joints. Typical frequency range is from 100 Hz to
100 kHz.

Adjustable Sliding Probes

These probes are well suited for finding subsurface cracks in thick multilayer structures, like wing
skins. Maximum penetration is about 3/4 inch. The frequency range for adjustable sliding probes is from
100 Hz to 40 kHz.

Adjustable probes, as the name implies, are adjustable with the use of spacers, which will change
the penetration capabilities. The spacer thickness between the coils is normally adjusted for the best
detection. For tangential scans or 90 degree scanning with an offset from the center, a thinner spacer is
often used.

The spacer thickness range can vary from 0 (no spacer) for inspections close to the surface and
small fastener heads to a maximum of about 0.3 inch for deep penetration with large heads in the bigger
probe types. A wider spacer will give more tolerance to probe deviation as the sensitive area becomes
wider but the instrument will require more gain. Sliding probes usually penetrate thicker materials
compared to the donut probes.

Reference Standards

Reference/calibration standards for setup of sliding probes typically consist of three or four
aluminum plates that are fastened together within a lap joint type configuration. EDM notches or
naturally/artificially- induced cracks are located in the second or third layer of the standard.
 Reference standards used should be manufactured from the same material type, alloy, material
thickness, and chemical composition that will be found on the aircraft component to be inspected. Sizes
and tolerances of flaws introduced in the standards are usually regulated by inspection specifications.

Instrument Display (Liftoff)

Liftoff is normally adjusted to be horizontal, but on the CRT liftoff shows up as a curved line
rather than a straight line. Sometimes liftoff can be a steep curve and may have to be allowed to move
slightly upwards before moving downwards.

Scanning Patterns

A typical scan is centralized over the fastener head and moves along the axis of the fastener holes.
This scan is generally used to detect cracks positioned along the axis of the fastener holes. For detecting
cracks located transverse or 90 degrees from the axis of the fastener holes, a scan that is 90 degrees from
the axis of the fastener holes is recommended.

Crack Detetion

Signal Interprenation

When the probe moves over a fastener hole with a crack, the indication changes and typically will
create a larger vertical movement. The vertical amplitude of the loop depends on the crack length, with
longer cracks giving higher indications.

If the crack is in the far side of the fastener, as the probe moves over it the dot will follow the
fastener line first but will move upwards (clockwise) as it goes over the crack. If the crack is in the near
side, it will be found first and the dot will move along the crack level before coming down to the fastener
level.

If two cracks on opposite sides of the fastener hole are present, the dot will move upwards to the
height by the first crack length and then come back to the fastener line and balance point. If the second
crack is longer than the first one, the dot will move even higher and complete the loop (clockwise) before
going down to the balance point.

Variables

Probe Scan Deviation

Most probes are designed to give a narrow indication for a good fastener hole so that the loops
from the cracks are more noticeable. Some probes and structures can give wider indications and a similar
result can be obtained if the probe is not straight when it approaches the fastener. It is important to keep
the probe centralized over the fastener heads. Doing this will give you a maximum indication for the
fastener and a crack.
 Crack Angle Deviation

A reduction in the crack indication occurs when the crack is at an angle to the probe scan direction.
This happens if the crack is not completely at 90 degrees to the normal probe scan or changes direction as
it grows. Both the fixed and adjustable sliding probes are capable of detecting cracks up to about 30
degrees off angle.

Electrical Contact

When inspecting fasteners that have just been installed or reference standards that have intimate
contact with the aluminum skin plate, it is not unusual to obtain a smaller than normal indication. In some
extreme cases, the fastener indication may disappear almost completely. This is due to the good electrical
contact between the fastener and the skin that allows the eddy currents to circulate without finding the
boundary and therefore no obstacle or barrier. Because of this effect it is recommended to paint the holes
before fastener installation.

Tube Inspection

Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion, cracking and other changes in
tubing. Heat exchangers and steam generators, which are used in power plants, have thousands of tubes
that must be prevented from leaking. This is especially important in nuclear power plants where reused,
contaminated water must be prevented from mixing with fresh water that will be returned to the
environment. The contaminated water flows on one side of the tube (inside or outside) and the fresh water
flows on the other side. The heat is transferred from the contaminated water to the fresh water and the
fresh water is then returned back to is source, which is usually a lake or river. It is very important to keep
the two water sources from mixing so power plants are periodically shutdown so the tubes and other
equipment can be inspected and repaired. The eddy current test method and the related remote field testing
method provide high-speed inspection techniques for these applications.

A technique that is often used involves feeding a differential bobbin probe into the individual tube
of the heat exchanger. With the differential probe, no signal will be seen on the eddy current instrument as
long as no metal thinning is present. When metal thinning is present, a loop will be seen on the impedance
plane as one coil of the differential probe passes over the flawed area and a second loop will be produced
when the second coil passes over the damage. When the corrosion is on the outside surface of the tube, the
depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the phase lag. The size of the indication provides an indication
of the total extent of the corrosion damage.

Conductivity Measurements

One of the uses of eddy current instruments is for the measurement of electrical conductivity. The
value of the electrical conductivity of a metal depends on several factors, such as its chemical composition
and the stress state of its crystalline structure. Therefore, electrical conductivity information can be used
for sorting metals, checking for proper heat treatment, and inspecting for heat damage.

The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in the air and placing the probe in contact
with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the change in impedance of the coil can be correlated
directly to the conductivity of the material. The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials
from nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects from magnetic
permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are limited to nonmagnetic materials. It is important to
control factors that can affect the results such as the inspection temperature and the part geometry.
Conductivity changes with temperature so measurements should be made at a constant temperature and
adjustments made for temperature variations when necessary. The thickness of the specimen should
generally be greater than three standard depths of penetration. This is so the eddy currents at the back
surface of the sample are sufficiently weaker than variations in specimen thickness that are not seen in the
measurements.
 Generally large pancake type, surface probes are used to get a value for a relatively large sample
area. The instrument is usually setup such that a ferromagnetic material produces a response that is nearly
vertical. Then, all conductive but nonmagnetic materials will produce a trace that moves down and to the
right as the probe is moved toward the surface. Think back to the discussion on the impedance plane and
these type of responses make sense. Remember that inductive reactance changes are plotted along the y-
axis and resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis. Since ferromagnetic materials will concentrate the
magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive reactance of the coil will increase. The effects on the
signal from the magnetic permeability overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much
stronger. When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the coil's inductive
reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy currents and opposes the magnetic field of the
coil. The resistance in the coil increases since it takes some of the coils energy to generate the eddy
currents and this appears as additional resistance in the circuit. As the conductivity of the materials being
tested increases, the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be greater.
Therefore, the signals will be come more vertical as conductivity increases as shown in the image above.

To sort materials, using an impedance plane device, the signal from the unknown sample must be
compared to a signal from a variety of reference standards.. However, there are devices available that can
be calibrated to produce a value for electrical conductivity which can then be compared to published
values of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard).
Please be aware that the conductivity of a particular material can vary significantly with slight variations
in the chemical composition and, thus, a conductivity range is generally provided for a material. The
conductivity range for one material may overlap with the range of a second material of interest so
conductivity alone can not always be used to sort materials. The electrical conductivity values for a variety
of materials can be found in the material properties reference tables.

Conductivity Measurements for the Verification of Heat Treatment

With some materials, such as solution heat treatable aluminum alloys, conductivity measurements
are often made verifying that parts and materials have received the proper heat treatment. High purity
aluminum is soft and ductile, and gains strength and hardness with the addition of alloying elements. A
few such aluminum alloys are the 2000 series (2014, 2024, etc.), 6000 series (6061, 6063, etc.), and 7000
series (7050, 7075, etc.). The 2xxx series aluminum alloys have copper, the 6xxx series have magnesium,
and the 7xxx have zinc as their major alloying elements.

Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is accomplished in two phases - solution heat treatment and
then aging. In the solution heat treatment step, the alloys are heated to an elevated temperature to dissolve
the alloying elements into solution. The metal is then rapidly cooled or quenched to “freeze” the atoms of
the alloying elements in the lattice structure of the aluminum. This distorts and stresses the structure
making electron movement more difficult and, therefore, decreases the electrical conductivity. In this
condition, the alloys are still relatively soft but start to gain strength as the alloying elements begin to
precipitate out of solution to form extremely small particles that impede the movement of dislocations
within the material. The formation of the precipitates can be controlled for many alloys by heating and
holding the material at an elevated temperature for a period of time (artificial aging). As the alloying
elements precipitate out of solid solution, the conductivity of the material gradually increases. By
controlling the amount of precipitated particles within the aluminum, the properties can be controlled to
produce peak strength or some combinations of strength and corrosion resistance. Sometimes the material
must be annealed or put into the softest most ductile condition possible in order to perform forming
operations. Annealing allows all of the alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to form a course
widely spaced precipitate. The electrical conductivity is greatest when the material is in the annealed
condition.

Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components that can be made using
less material. A lighter or more compact design is often of great importance to the designer and well worth
the cost of the heat treating process. However, think of the consequences that could arise if a component
that was suppose to be solution heat treated and aged some how left the manufacturing facility and was
put into service unheat treated or annealed. This is a real possibility since heat treated aluminum parts look
exactly like unheat treated parts. Consider 2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile properties and its
electrical conductivity for various heat treatment conditions are given in the following table.

Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum

Heat Treatment Condition Ultimate Strength Yield Strength Electrical Conductivity

Annealed (O) 26 ksi (180 MPa) 11 ksi (75 MPa) 50 % IACS
Solution Heat Treated and
64 ksi (440 MPa) 42 ksi (290 MPa) 30 % IACS
Naturally Aged (T42)
Solution Heat Treated,
Coldworked and Artificially 70 ksi (485 MPa) 66 ksi (455 MPa) 38 % IACS
Aged (T861)

It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilipounds/square inch (ksi) (290 MPa)
in the solution heat treated and naturally aged condition (T42 condition). The yield strength can be
increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa) when coldworked and artificially aged (T861 condition). But in the
annealed condition, the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi or 75 MPa). If an annealed part were
accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it would likely fail prematurely.
However, a quick check of the conductivity using an eddy current instrument of all parts prior to shipping
the parts would prevent this from occurring.

Thickness Measurements of Thin Material

Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a number of dimensional measurements. The
ability to make rapid measurements without the need for couplant or, in some cases even surface contact,
makes eddy current techniques very use. The type of measurements that can be made include:

• thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of metallic coatings on

metallic and nonmetallic substrate
• cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods
• thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates

Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins

One application where the eddy current technique is commonly used to measure material thickness
is in detection and characterization of corrosion damage on the skins of aircraft. Eddy current techniques
can be used to do spot checks or scanners can be used to inspect small areas. Eddy current inspection has
an advantage over ultrasound in this application because no mechanical coupling is required to get the
energy into the structure. Therefore, in multi-layered areas of the structure like lap splices, eddy current
can often determine if corrosion thinning is present in buried layers.

Eddy current inspection has an advantage over radiography for this application because only single
sided access is required to perform the inspection. To get a piece of film on the back side of the aircraft
skin might require removing interior furnishings, panels, and insulation which could be very costly.
Advanced eddy current techniques are being developed that can determine thickness changes down to
about 3 percent of the skin thickness.

Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Sheet, Strip and Foil

Eddy current techniques are used to measure the thickness of hot sheet, strip and foil in rolling
mills, and to measure the amount of metal thinning that has occurred over time due to corrosion on
fuselage skins of aircraft. On the impedance plane, thickness variations exhibit the same type of eddy
current signal response as a subsurface defects, except that the signal represents a void of infinite size and
depth. The phase rotation pattern is the same, but the signal amplitude is greater.

When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth of penetration of the
eddy currents must cover the entire range of thickness being measured. Typically, a frequency is selected
that produces about one standard depth of penetration at the maximum thickness. Unfortunately, at lower
frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary penetration, the probe impedance is more
sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity. Thus, the effects of electrical conductivity cannot be phased
out and it is important to verify that any variations of conductivity over the region of interest are at a
sufficiently low level.

Measurement of Cross sectional Dimensions of Cylindrical Tubes and Rods

Dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods can be measured with either OD coils or internal axial
coils, whichever is appropriate. The relationship between change in impedance and change in diameter is
fairly constant at all but at very low frequencies. However, the advantages of operating at a higher
normalized frequency are twofold. First, the contribution of any conductivity change to the impedance of
the coil becomes less important and, it can easily be phased out. Second, there is an increase in
measurement sensitivity resulting from the higher value of the inductive component of the impedance.
Because of the large phase difference between the impedance vectors corresponding to changes in fill-
factor and conductivity (and defect size), simultaneous testing for dimensions, conductivity, and defects
can be carried out.

Typical applications include measuring eccentricities of the diameters of tubes and rods and the
thickness of tube walls. Long tubes are often tested by passing them at a constant speed through encircling
coils (generally differential) and providing a close fit to achieve as high a fill-factor as possible.

An important application of tube-wall thickness measurement is the detection and assessment of

corrosion, both external and internal. Internal probes must be used when the external surface is not
accessible, i.e. when testing pipes that are buried or supported by brackets. Success has been achieved in
measuring thickness variations in ferromagnetic metal pipes with the remote field technique.

Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Layers

It is also possible to measure the thickness of a thin layer of metal on a metallic substrate, provided
the two metals have widely differing electrical conductivity, e.g. silver on lead where s= 67 and 10 MS/m,
respectively. A frequency must be selected such that there is complete eddy current penetration of the
layer, but not of the substrate itself. The method has also been used successfully for measuring thickness
of very thin protective coatings of ferromagnetic metals, e.g. chromium and nickel, on non-ferromagnetic
metal bases.
 Depending on the required degree of penetration, measurements can be made using a single-coil
probe or a transformer probe, preferably reflection type. Small-diameter probe coils are usually preferred
since they can provide very high sensitivity and minimize effects related to property or thickness
variations in the underlying base metal when used in combination with suitably high test frequencies. The
goal is to confine the magnetizing field, and the resulting eddy current distribution, to just beyond the thin
coating layer and to minimize the field within the base metals.

Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on Conductive Materials

The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from the
effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use for measuring thickness of paint and
plastic coatings. The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the conductive surface. As the
distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength
decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with base metal. Thickness between 0.5
and 25 µm can be measured to an accuracy between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher values.
Contributions to impedance changes due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is
known that conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw detector and a
calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction of the lift off signal is established. The
location of the signal is marked on the screen as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in areas of
decreasing coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the test surface, the position of the signal will
move from the air null position to a point that can be correlated to the calibration markings.

Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and are often pocket-sized
with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are usually operated by a small battery and provide a
digital read-out in the appropriate units. Calibration adjustments, some of which are laid down by
standards, e.g. BS EN 2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376, may be assisted by the use of an inbuilt
microprocessor.

Scanning

Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to improve the quality of the
measurements and to construct images of scanned areas. The most common type of scanning is line
scanning where an automated system is used to push the probe at a fixed speed. Line scan systems are
often used when performing tube inspections or aircraft engine blade slot inspections, where scanning in
one dimension is needed. The data is usually presented as a strip chart recording. The advantage of using a
linear scanning system is that the probe is moved at a constant speed so indication on the strip chart can be
correlated to a position on the part being scanned. As with all automated scanning systems, operator
variables, such as wobble of the probe, are reduced.

Two-dimensional scanning systems are used to scan a two-dimensional area. This could be a
scanning system that scans over a relatively flat area in a X-Y raster mode, or it could be a bolt hole
inspection system that rotates the probe as it is moved into the hole. The data is typically displayed as a
false-color plot of signal strength or phase angle shift as a function of position, just like an ultrasonic C-
scan presentation. Shown below is a portable scanning system that is designed to work on the skins of
aircraft fuselage and wing sections.

Listed below are some automated scanning advantages:

• minimizes changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces, and
eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or denting
• accurate indexing
• repeatability
• high resolution mapping

Multiple Frequency Techniques

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at several different
frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data in some way.

Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information

The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following factors:

• variations in operating frequency

• variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a object or structure,
caused by structural changes such as grain structure, work hardening, heat treatment, etc.
• changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven surfaces, and
eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or denting
• the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects such as voids and
nonmetallic inclusions
• dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion, deposition of
metal deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting
• the presence of supports, walls, and brackets
• the presence of discontinuities such as edges

Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case where interest is
confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in geometry, a differential probe can be used to
eliminate unwanted factors, providing they vary in a gradual manner. For example, variations in electrical
conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a differential probe simultaneously. However, if
unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are affecting the measurements, they can sometimes be negated
by mixing signals collected at several frequencies.

An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in heat exchanger tube
inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a collection of tubing that have support brackets on the
outside. When attempting to inspect the full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal from the mounting
bracket is often troublesome. By collected a signal at the frequency necessary to inspect the full thickness
of the tube and subtracting a second signal collected at a lower frequency (which will be more sensitive to
the bracket but less sensitive to features in the tubing), the affects of the bracket can be reduced.

There are a number of commercially available multi-frequency eddy current instruments. Most
operate at only two frequencies at a time but some units can collect data at up to four frequencies
simultaneously. Multi-frequency measurements can also be made using an impedance analyzer but this
equipment is generally not suitable for field measurements. A typical impedance analyzer system is shown
below. The interest in pulsed eddy current instruments is largely due to their ability to, in essence, perform
multi-frequency measurements very quickly and easily.

Swept Frequency

Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data at a wide range of
frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialized piece of equipment such as an impedance
analyzer, which can be configured to automatically make measurements over a range of frequencies. The
swept-frequency technique can be implemented with commercial equipment but it is a difficult and time-
consuming measurement. The advantage of a swept frequency measurement is that depth information can
be obtained since eddy current depth of penetration varies as a function of frequency.

Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring the thickness of
conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating between flaws in surface coatings and flaws
in the base metal, differentiating between flaws in various layers of built-up structure. An example
application would be the lap splice of a commercial aircraft. Swept frequency measurements would make
it possible to tell if cracking was occurring on the outer skin, the inner skin or a double layer. Below is an
example of the type of data that can be obtained from swept-frequency measurements.

Data from swept-frequency measurements on two heats of material.

It can be seen in the etched condition, the material labeled "good" exhibits a much different signal
response than the material labeled "bad." It can also be seen that a frequency of around 2.2 MHz provides
the largest separation in the curves, and, therefore, it should be used if a single frequency were used to sort
parts made from the two metals.

Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection

Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating electrical current of a
particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy current technique uses a step function voltage to
excite the probe. The advantage of using a step function voltage is that it contains a continuum of
frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies can be measured
with just a single step. Since the depth of penetration is dependent on the frequency of excitation,
information from a range of depths can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the time
domain (that is by looking at signal strength as a function of time), indications produced by flaws or other
features near the inspection coil will be seen first and more distant features will be seen later in time.

To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is usually collected
to which all other signals are compared (just like nulling the probe in convention eddy current inspection).
Flaws, conductivity, and dimensional changes produce a change in the signal and a difference between the
reference signal and the measurement signal that is displayed. The distance of the flaw and other features
relative to the probe will cause the signal to shift in time. Therefore, time gating techniques (like in
ultrasonic inspection) can be used to gain information about the depth of a feature of interest.

Remote Field Sensing

Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes when external access is not possible, e.g. with
buried pipelines, is conducted using internal probes. When testing thick-walled ferromagnetic metal pipes
with conventional internal probes, very low frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel pipe 10 mm thick) are
necessary to achieve the through-penetration of the eddy currents. This situation produces a very low
sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of penetration can, in principle, be increased by the application of
a saturation magnetic field. However, because of the large volume of metal present, a large saturation unit
carrying a heavy direct current may be required to produce an adequate saturating field.

The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be greatly alleviated
with the use of the remote field eddy current method, which allows measurable through penetration of the
walls at three times the maximum frequency possible with the conventional direct field method. This
technique was introduced by Schmidt in 1958. Although it has been used by the petroleum industry for
detecting corrosion in their installations since the early 1960s, it has only recently evoked general interest.
This interest is largely because the method highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness, but relative
insensitive to fill-factor changes. The method has the added advantage of allowing equal sensitivities of
detection at both inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. It cannot, however, differentiate
between signals from these respective surfaces.