INSTITUTE:UIE

DEPARTMENT:ECE
Bachelor of Engineering (Electronics & Communication
Engineering)
Subject Name: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Subject Code: 21ECT-223
Prepared by: Dr. Gaurav Aggarwal

DISCOVER . LEARN .
EMPOWER 1
 GREEN CHEMISTRY
• Green Chemistry is the utilization of a set of principles that
reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous
substances in the design, manufacture and application of
chemical products

• Green Chemistry is a recent approach to design of energy

efficient processes and the best form of waste disposal

• The awareness among the organic chemists to practice

green chemical routes for organic transformations is
significantly increasing in the place of mineral acids, mild
solid acids or clays are used. The reactions are carried out in
organized media or in green solvents. 2
GREEN CHEMISTRY IS
ABOUT
• Waste Minimization at Source

• Use of Catalysts in place of Reagents

• Using Non-Toxic Reagents

• Use of Renewable Resources

• Improved Atom Efficiency

• Use of Solvent Free or Recyclable Environmentally Benign

Solvent systems
3
 Green Chemistry
• Green chemistry is the use of chemistry for pollution prevention
• Design of chemical products and processes that are more
environmentally benign
• Reduction or elimination of the use or generation of hazardous
substances associated with a particular synthesis or process
• Green chemistry looks at pollution prevention on the molecular
scale and is an extremely important area of Chemistry due to the
importance of Chemistry in our world today and the implications it
can show on our environment
• The Green Chemistry program supports the invention of more
environmentally friendly chemical processes which reduce or even
eliminate the generation of hazardous substances

4
 Importance of Green Chemistry
• With the increase in production and use of chemical compounds,
man has become more exposed to the deterious effects.
So the knowledge of toxicology is essential for the management
and prevention of the adverse effects and toxicity of chemicals.
• 2 billion lbs. of chemicals were released to air, land and water
• Data includes only 365 of 70,000 chemicals available in commerce
• Environmental and hazardous wastes operations => economic
burden
• environmental expenditures : cost of doing business
• 100-150 billion $ / year for remediation in US alone
• shift financial resources from costs to research &
development
• Promise of Green Chemistry to lower overall costs associated
with environmental health and safety
5
Green chemistry, is also called Benign
chemistry or clean chemistry for
sustainability

• Refers to the field of chemistry dealing with

1- Synthesis (the path to making chemicals)

2- Processing (the actual making of chemicals)

3- Use of chemicals that reduce risks to humans and

impact on the environment

6
Green Chemistry Is About...

Waste

Materials

Hazard

Risk
Energy

Cost

7
 Why do we need Green
Chemistry ?
• Chemistry is undeniably a very prominent part of our daily lives.

• Chemical developments also bring new environmental problems

and harmful unexpected side effects, which result in the need for
‘greener’ chemical products.

• A famous example is the pesticide DDT.

• Hundreds of tons of hazardous waste are released to the air,

water and land by industry every hour of every day. The chemical
industry is the biggest source of such waste

• In recent years, pollution control board regulated to reduce

harmful emissions , effluents and workers safety. 8
 The 12 Principles of Green
Chemistry (1-4)
1. Prevention
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after
it has been created.
2. Atom Economy
Synthetic methods should be designed to maximise the
incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final
product.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis
Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to
use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to
people or the environment.
4. Designing Safer Chemicals
Chemical products should be designed to effect their desired
function while minimising their toxicity. 9
 The 12 Principles of Green
Chemistry
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries
The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents or separation agents)
should be made unnecessary whenever possible and innocuous when
used.
6. Design for Energy Efficiency
Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognised for
their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimised.
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks
A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than
depleting whenever technically and economically practicable.
8. Reduce Derivatives
Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ de-
protection, and temporary modification of physical/chemical
processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such
steps require additional reagents and can generate waste.
10
 The 12 Principles of Green
Chemistry
9. Catalysis
Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to
stoichiometric reagents.
10. Design for Degradation
Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their
function they break down into innocuous degradation products and
do not persist in the environment.
11. Real-time Analysis for Pollution Prevention
Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for
real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation
of hazardous substances.
12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention
Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process
should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents,
including releases, explosions, and fires. 11
“It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean
up waste after it is formed”

Chemical
Process

12
Production of allyl alcohol
• Traditional route: Alkaline hydrolysis of allyl chloride, which generates the
product and hydrochloric acid as a by-product
CH2=CHCH2Cl + H2O CH2=CHCH2OH + HCl

problem product
• Greener route, to avoid chlorine: Two-step using propylene (CH2=CHCH3), acetic
acid (CH3COOH) and oxygen (O2)
CH2=CHCH3 + CH3COOH + 1/2 O2 CH2=CHCH2OCOCH3 + H2O

CH2=CHCH2OCOCH3 + H2O CH2=CHCH2OH + CH3COOH

• Added benefit: The acetic acid produced in the 2nd reaction can be recovered
and used again for the 1st reaction, leaving no unwanted by-product.

13
 Green Chemical Approaches

Green chemical approaches in the field of chemistry aim to

reduce the environmental impact of chemical processes,
minimize waste generation, and improve energy efficiency.
Microwave synthesis:
Microwave synthesis is a technique used in chemistry to facilitate
chemical reactions using microwave irradiation as a source of
energy.
Traditional methods of heating, such as open flame or conduction,
can be energy-intensive and time-consuming.
While Microwave synthesis, relies on the selective and efficient
absorption of microwave radiation by polar or ionic molecules
UIE, ECE Deptt. 14
Which leads to rapid and uniform heating of reaction mixtures,
resulting in several advantages:
Faster Reactions:
Microwave heating can significantly accelerate chemical
reactions.
Reactions that might take hours or even days using conventional
methods can often be completed in minutes or even seconds
using microwaves.

Improved Yields: Microwave synthesis can lead to higher yields

and improved product purity by minimizing side reactions and
by-products.

Energy Efficiency: The localized heating of reaction mixtures

with microwaves is more energy-efficient than conventional
heating methods.
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Reduced Solvent Usage:
Microwave synthesis enables reactions to be conducted
with reduced solvent volumes or even without a solvent,
which is in line with green chemistry principles.

Reduced Environmental Impact:

Shorter reaction times, reduced energy consumption,
and minimized waste generation contribute to a smaller
environmental footprint.

Safety:
Microwave synthesis can enhance safety by reducing
the risks associated with high-temperature reactions
and by minimizing the exposure of chemists to
hazardous substances.
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In summary, microwave synthesis is a green chemical
approach that significantly enhances the efficiency and
sustainability of chemical processes.

It plays a valuable role in reducing the environmental

impact of chemical research and production by improving
reaction efficiency, reducing energy consumption, and
minimizing waste.

Example: Microwave Synthesis of Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic Acid)

Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid, is a widely used pain reliever and
anti-inflammatory medication.

It can be synthesized through a conventional synthesis process,

but microwave synthesis can significantly speed up this
reaction.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 17
Here's how microwave synthesis can be applied to the
preparation of aspirin:

Ingredients:
• Salicylic acid (reactant)
• Acetic anhydride (reactant)
• Sulfuric acid (catalyst)
• Methanol (solvent)

Procedure:
• Combine salicylic acid and acetic anhydride in a reaction
vessel.
• Add a small amount of sulfuric acid as a catalyst.
• Dissolve the mixture in a minimal amount of methanol,
creating a slurry.
• Place the reaction vessel in a microwave reactor.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 18
Comparison:
 In a conventional synthesis, the mixture would be
heated in a flask using a heating mantle or other heating
apparatus. The reaction might take a few hours.
 In a microwave synthesis, the reaction vessel is placed
in a microwave reactor, and the mixture is exposed to
microwave irradiation.
 The microwave synthesis completes the reaction in a
matter of minutes, often less than 10 minutes, whereas
the conventional method could take several hours.
The advantages of microwave synthesis in this example
include:
Faster Reaction:
The reaction is completed much more quickly with
microwave synthesis. UIE, ECE Deptt. 19
Higher Yield:
Microwave synthesis can result in a higher yield of
aspirin due to reduced side reactions.

Energy Efficiency:
The microwave approach is more energy-efficient
because it rapidly heats the reaction mixture.

Microwave synthesis can be applied to the preparation of a

common pharmaceutical compound like aspirin, showcasing its
potential for improving reaction efficiency and reducing the
environmental impact through reduced energy consumption
and waste generation.
However, it's essential to ensure that the reaction conditions
and reactants are suitable for microwave synthesis to achieve
these benefits effectively. UIE, ECE Deptt. 20
 Green Chemical Approaches
Bio Catalyzed Reaction
• A green chemical approach to bio-catalyzed reactions
involves using biological catalysts, such as enzymes or whole
cells, to carry out chemical reactions in an environmentally
friendly and sustainable manner.
• This approach aims to reduce the environmental impact of
chemical processes by minimizing the use of hazardous
chemicals, energy consumption, and waste generation.
• Some key aspects of bio-catalyzed reactions in the context
of green chemistry are:

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 Biological Catalysts:
Enzymes are the most commonly used biological
catalysts in bio-catalyzed reactions.
Enzymes are highly selective and efficient, which means
they can catalyze specific reactions with high precision
and reduces the formation of unwanted by-products.
Renewable Feedstocks:
Green chemistry encourages the use of renewable
feedstocks, such as biomass or agricultural waste, as starting
materials for bio-catalyzed reactions. This reduces the
reliance on fossil fuels and minimizes the carbon footprint of
the process.
Reduced Energy Consumption:
Bio-catalyzed reactions often operate under mild conditions
(e.g., room temperature and atmospheric pressure), which
reduces energy consumption compared to traditional
chemical processes that require high temperatures and
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pressures.
Solvent Minimization:
Green chemistry aims to minimize the use of organic
solvents, which can be harmful to the environment. Many
bio-catalyzed reactions are carried out in water or other
benign solvents which reduces the environmental impact.

Biodegradable Products:
Bio-catalyzed reactions often yield biodegradable
products which reduces the environmental burden of
waste disposal.

Catalyst Recycling:
Enzymes and other biological catalysts can often be
reused, further reducing waste and production costs.
Efficiency and Selectivity:
Bio-catalyzed reactions are known for their high efficiency and
selectivity, which means fewer by-products and less waste.23
UIE, ECE Deptt.
Research and Innovation:
Ongoing research and innovation in bio catalysis
continue to expand the range of chemical reactions that
can be efficiently and sustainably catalyzed by biological
catalysts.
Examples of bio-catalyzed reactions in green chemistry
include the enzymatic production of biofuels, the
synthesis of pharmaceuticals, and the conversion of
biomass into bio-based chemicals.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 24

UIE, ECE Deptt. 25
Invartase converts sucrose present in the sample to glucose and fructose while zymase
converts it finally to ethanol and CO2 UIE, ECE Deptt. 26
UIE, ECE Deptt. 27
 Green Chemical Approaches
Mechanism of Degradation

In Green chemistry, the mechanisms of degradation aim to minimize

the environmental impact of chemical substances and processes. This
involves designing chemicals and processes to degrade in ways that
are less harmful to the environment

mechanisms of degradation within a green chemical approach are:

Biodegradation: Green chemistry emphasizes the use of
biodegradable materials and chemicals that can be naturally
broken down by microorganisms.
This promotes the degradation of compounds into environmentally
benign substances.
Biodegradable substances are designed to be recognized and
metabolized by microbes, reducing their persistence in the
environment. UIE, ECE Deptt. 28
Photo degradation:

Green chemistry encourages the use of photo catalysis,

where chemicals or materials are degraded by exposure
to light. This approach helps break down organic
pollutants in water and air, making them less harmful to
the environment

Hydrolysis:

Green chemistry promotes the use of water as a solvent

for chemical reactions. Water is a benign and
environmentally friendly solvent, and many green chemical
processes use hydrolysis to break down compounds into
less hazardous or non-toxic substances.
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Oxidative Degradation:

Green chemistry seeks to employ environmentally benign

oxidants, such as hydrogen peroxide, oxygen, to facilitate
the degradation of organic pollutants. Use of green
oxidants reduces the formation of harmful by products
and minimizes environmental impact.

Catalytic Degradation:

Green chemistry often uses solid catalysts, which are

easily separable and reusable, to facilitate the
degradation of chemicals. Heterogeneous catalysis
enhances the efficiency of chemical processes and reduce
waste.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 30
Minimization of Hazardous By products:

A key principle of green chemistry is to minimize the

formation of hazardous by products in chemical
reactions. This involves designing reactions and
processes to be as selective as possible, reducing the
generation of toxic or harmful substances

Design for Disassembly:

In the context of product design, green chemistry

encourages products to be designed with disassembly and
recycling in mind. This facilitates the recovery and reuse of
valuable materials, reducing waste and resource
consumption.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 31
Chemical Recycling:

Green chemistry explores methods like

depolymerisation to break down and recycle
polymers, including plastics. This approach helps to
reduce the accumulation of plastic waste and conserves
resources

Renewable Feedstocks:

The use of renewable feedstocks, such as biomass-

derived materials, is promoted in green chemistry. This
reduces the environmental impact of chemical
processes by utilizing sustainable resources
UIE, ECE Deptt. 32
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA):

Green chemistry utilizes LCA to assess the environmental impact

of chemical products and processes from cradle to grave.

This helps to identify areas for improvement and sustainable

design throughout the product's life cycle.

By implementing these mechanisms, green chemistry seeks

to develop chemical processes and products that are less
harmful to the environment and more sustainable in the
long term.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 33

 Green Chemical Approaches
Super critical conditions for solvent free reactions

Supercritical conditions is a state where a substance is

exposed to temperature and pressure conditions above its
critical point.
In solvent-free reactions, supercritical fluids (often referred
to as "supercritical solvents") provides a unique and
environmentally friendly environment for chemical reactions.
Supercritical conditions offer some advantages for
solvent-free reactions, including enhanced mass
transport, increased reaction rates, and the ability to
manipulate the solvent properties by adjusting the
pressure and temperature.

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Some of the key supercritical conditions for solvent-free
reactions are:
Critical Temperature (Tc):

This is the temperature above which a substance cannot

exist in a liquid state, regardless of the pressure.

Reactions at or above the critical temperature eliminate

the need for a traditional solvent.

Critical Pressure (Pc):

This is the pressure required to maintain a substance at its

critical temperature in a supercritical state. Operating at
pressures above the critical point is essential for achieving
supercritical conditions.UIE, ECE Deptt. 39
Supercritical Fluids:

Common supercritical fluids used in solvent-free reactions

include carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

These fluids can be manipulated to behave like both a gas and

a liquid by adjusting the pressure and temperature

Tuneable Properties:

Supercritical fluids can be tuned by changing the temperature

and pressure to adjust their solvent properties.

This allows chemists to fine-tune reaction conditions to

enhance reactant solubility and control reaction kinetics.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 40

Enhanced Mass Transfer:
Supercritical fluids have excellent mass transport properties,
making them effective at dissolving and delivering reactants
to the reaction site. This leads to increased reaction rates
and improved selectivity

Environmentally Friendly:
Supercritical conditions are often considered environmentally
friendly as they eliminate the need for volatile organic
solvents, reducing potential environmental and health risks
associated with solvent use.

Selective Extractions:
Supercritical fluids can be used for selective extractions of
specific compounds from mixtures, making them valuable
in various applications, including the extraction of natural
products and pharmaceuticals
UIE, ECE Deptt. 41
 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (scCO2):

This is one of the most commonly used supercritical fluids

in
solvent-free reactions.
It is non-toxic, non-flammable, and can be easily removed
from reaction mixtures by depressurization, leaving
behind a residue-free product.

Supercritical conditions are particularly advantageous

for certain types of reactions, such as extractions,
polymerizations, and catalytic processes.
However, they may not be suitable for all
reactions, and the choice of solvent-free or supercritical
conditions depends on the specific reaction and the properties
of the reactants and products involved
UIE, ECE Deptt. 42
"Green fuel" is a broad term used to describe various types
of alternative fuels that are more environmentally friendly
and sustainable than traditional fossil fuels, such as gasoline
and diesel
Green fuels are often considered a part of efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.
Some common examples of green fuels include:
Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a renewable fuel made from
biological sources, typically vegetable oils, animal fats, or
algae. It can be used as a substitute for traditional diesel
fuel in diesel engines.
Ethanol: Ethanol, often made from corn, sugarcane, or
other plant materials, is used as a biofuel to blend with
gasoline. It can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
dependence on fossil fuels.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 43
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen is considered a green fuel when produced
through renewable energy sources like electrolysis of
water. Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to generate
electricity for various applications.

Natural Gas:
Natural gas is a cleaner alternative to gasoline and diesel
when produced using methods such as compressed
natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG)

Electricity:
Electric vehicles (EVs) use electricity as a green fuel
source. When generated from renewable sources like
wind, solar, or hydropower, the electricity used in EVs are
environmentally friendly.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 44
 Propane:
Propane, also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is a
clean-burning fuel used in vehicles, appliances, and
heating
systems
Renewable Natural Gas (RNG):
RNG is a biogas produced from organic waste materials,
such as agricultural residues or sewage.
It can be used as a substitute for traditional natural gas

• The term "green fuel" is used in the context of reducing

carbon emissions and promoting sustainability
• These alternative fuels can help decrease the carbon
footprint of transportation and energy production,
contributing to a more environmentally friendly and
sustainable future
• The choice of green fuel depends on factors like availability,
infrastructure, and the specific goals of reducing emissions
in a given sector.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 45
 Hydrogen-Production
Hydrogen production is the process of generating hydrogen gas (H2),
which can be used as a clean energy carrier in different applications,
including fuel cells, transportation, industrial processes, and power generation.

Hydrogen is considered a promising green energy source.

When produced using environmentally friendly methods, typically referred to

as "green hydrogen.“

There are several methods for producing hydrogen, and they can be
categorized into three main types:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR):

This is the most common method for hydrogen production, especially for
industrial use.
It involves reacting natural gas (methane, CH4) with high-temperature
steam (H2O) to produce hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide (CO2)

The carbon dioxide produced can be captured and stored to

reduce emissions, making it a potential source of "blue hydrogen."
UIE, ECE Deptt. 46
Electrolysis:

Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to split water

(H2O) into hydrogen and oxygen gases.

There are two main types of electrolysis:

 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolysis:

It Uses a solid polymer electrolyte to produce
high- purity hydrogen.
It is commonly used in small-scale and portable
applications.

 Alkaline electrolysis:
It Utilizes an alkaline solution as the electrolyte
and is suitable for larger
UIE,industrial
ECE Deptt. applications. 47
Biological Hydrogen Production:

Some microorganisms, such as certain types of

bacteria and algae, can produce hydrogen as a
metabolic by-product through a process known as
biological hydrogen production or photo-
fermentation.

This method is still in the research and development

phase but holds promise for sustainable hydrogen
production.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 48

Thermochemical Processes:

Thermochemical processes involve the use of heat and

chemical reactions to produce hydrogen
These methods often rely on high-temperature reactions
with various feedstocks and can include processes like
water-splitting cycles, such as the sulphur-iodine cycle or
hybrid sulphur cycle

Solar Hydrogen Production:

Solar hydrogen production involves using solar energy to

drive the electrolysis of water or other photochemical
processes to produce hydrogen
It is a green and sustainable method when coupled with
renewable energy sources.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 49
The choice of hydrogen production method depends on
factors such as

energy efficiency

cost

environmental impact and

the availability of feedstocks

Green hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources

like wind or solar power is considered the most
environmentally friendly and sustainable option, as it
produces no or minimal greenhouse gas emissions during
production
UIE, ECE Deptt. 50
Photo electro catalytic and photo catalytic water splitting

Photo-electrochemical (PEC) and photocatalytic water

splitting are processes that use light energy to split water
(H2O) into its constituent elements, hydrogen (H2) and
oxygen (O2).
These processes are of significant interest for sustainable
hydrogen production, which can serve as a clean energy
carrier.
Photocatalytic Water Splitting:
Principle: Photocatalytic water splitting involves the use
of a photo-catalyst material, usually a semiconductor like
titanium dioxide (TiO2) or other metal oxides

UIE, ECE Deptt. 51

When this material is exposed to light (typically solar light),
it absorbs photons and generates electron-hole pairs, which
can initiate chemical reactions.

Process:
In the presence of water, the photo-generated electrons
reduce water molecules, producing hydrogen gas, while the
holes oxidize water, producing oxygen gas

Challenges:
Photocatalytic water splitting is often limited by factors like
low efficiency, catalyst stability, and the need for a
semiconductor that absorbs a significant portion of the solar
spectrum.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 52

Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting (PEC):

Principle:
PEC water splitting combines the principles of
photochemistry and electrochemistry
It involves using a photo-electrode, typically made of a
semiconductor material, immersed in an electrolyte.
The photo-electrode is designed to absorb light and
generate charge carriers

Process:
When light strikes the photo-electrode, it creates electron-
hole pairs. The electrons are driven to the electrode,
reducing water and producing hydrogen gas, while the
holes migrate to the electrolyte side to oxidize water and
generate oxygen gas
UIE, ECE Deptt. 53
 Advantages:
PEC can be more efficient than traditional photo-catalysis,
as it can separate the redox reactions at the anode and
cathode, leading to potentially higher efficiencies

Challenges:
Developing stable, efficient, and cost-effective photo-
electrodes and electrolytes remains a challenge
Material design and system engineering are critical for the
success of PEC water splitting.
Both photocatalytic and photo-electrochemical water splitting are being
researched and developed as potential ways to produce clean hydrogen fuel,
particularly when renewable energy sources like solar power are used to
drive the processes.

Researchers continue to work on improving the efficiency, durability, and

cost-effectiveness of these technologies for broader commercial use. 54
UIE, ECE Deptt.
 Applications in Hydrogen fuel cells:
Hydrogen fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert
hydrogen and oxygen into electricity and water, with several
applications in various sectors.
Common applications of hydrogen fuel cells are:
Transportation:

• Hydrogen fuel cells are used in various types of

vehicles, including cars, buses, trucks, and trains

• They offer a clean and efficient alternative to

traditional
internal combustion engines, with zero tailpipe
emissions

• Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles typically have longer driving

UIE, ECE Deptt. 55
ranges compared to battery electric vehicles and can
Backup Power and Remote Power Generation:

• Hydrogen fuel cells are used as backup power sources

for critical infrastructure, such as data centres,
hospitals, and telecommunication towers.
• They can provide reliable and continuous power in
case of grid outages.
• Fuel cells are also used in off-grid and remote
locations where a consistent power supply is required

Material Handling Equipment:

• Hydrogen fuel cells power forklifts and other material
handling equipment in warehouses and distribution
centres
• These fuel cell-powered vehicles offer longer runtimes
and faster refuelling compared to battery-powered
counterparts. UIE, ECE Deptt. 56
Marine Applications:

Fuel cells are used in boats and ships to provide electric

propulsion and auxiliary power

Hydrogen fuel cells are a clean and quiet alternative to

traditional diesel engines in the maritime sector

Aerospace and Aviation:

Hydrogen fuel cells are being explored for use in

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and small aircraft

They offer a lightweight and efficient power source,

reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 57

Portable and Backup Power:

Hydrogen fuel cells are used as portable power sources for

camping, outdoor activities, and as backup power for
electronic devices and small appliances

Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems:

Fuel cells can be integrated into combined heat and power

systems for residential and commercial buildings.

These systems generate both electricity and heat, making

them highly energy-efficient

UIE, ECE Deptt. 58

Grid Stabilization:
Hydrogen fuel cells can be used to help stabilize the
electrical grid by providing fast response to fluctuations
in electricity demand

They can be part of a distributed energy generation and

storage system

Space Exploration:

Hydrogen fuel cells have been used in spacecraft for

decades, providing electrical power and drinking water
through the chemical reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen.

For example, the Apollo missions used fuel cells to

generate electricity and drinking water for astronauts
UIE, ECE Deptt. 59
 Research and Development:

Fuel cells are used in laboratories and research settings to

study electrochemical processes, test new materials, and
develop better fuel cell technologies

Hydrogen fuel cells offer a promising solution for clean and

efficient power generation in various applications.

However, challenges such as hydrogen production, storage,

and distribution need to be addressed to fully realize their
potential.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 60

FUEL CELLS
• A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a
fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or
another oxidizing agent.

A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen

and oxygen to produce electricity, with water and heat as its by-
product.

• It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient process, as the

conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an
electrochemical process, not combustion.

• It is two to three times more efficient than fuel burning

UIE, ECE Deptt. 61

Construction, working and applications of Methanol-
Oxygen fuel cell (H2SO4 as electrolyte)

A Methanol-Oxygen fuel cell, also known as a direct

methanol fuel cell (DMFC), is a type of electrochemical
device that converts the chemical energy stored in
methanol and oxygen into electrical energy through a
series of redox reactions

In DMFC Methanol is used as fuel and Oxygen is used as

oxidant

This type of fuel cell uses sulfuric acid (H2SO4) as the

electrolyte.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 62
Construction:

Anode:
The anode in a DMFC typically consists of a catalyst, such
as platinum-ruthenium (PtRu), which facilitates the
oxidation of methanol.
Methanol is supplied to UIE,
the anode
ECE Deptt. 63
Cathode:
The cathode is another electrode containing a catalyst,
often platinum (Pt), that facilitates the reduction of
oxygen. Oxygen or air is supplied to the cathode

Electrolyte:
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is used as the electrolyte in a
DMFC.
It provides the ionic conductivity necessary for the
migration of ions between the anode and cathode

Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM):

A proton-exchange membrane, typically made of a solid
polymer like Nafion, is placed between the anode and
cathode.
This membrane selectively allows protons (H+ ions) to
pass through while blocking the passage of electrons.64
UIE, ECE Deptt.
Working:The DMFC operates through the following
electrochemical reactions:

Methanol is oxidized at the anode, releasing electrons and

protons. At the anode:

CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-

At the cathode, oxygen is reduced by the electrons and

protons to form water.

3O2 + 12H+ + 12e- → 6H2O

Overall cell reaction: CH3OH + 3O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

The protons travel through the PEM to the cathode, while

the electrons are forced to take an external electrical
UIE, ECE Deptt. 65
circuit path, generating an electric current.
Applications:
Portable Power Sources:
DMFCs are used in portable power sources such as
laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices.
They offer a high energy density, longer runtime, and
quick refuelling compared to conventional batteries.

Military and Defence:

DMFCs are utilized in military applications for lightweight

and high-energy-density power sources for
communication devices, sensors, and field equipment.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs):

DMFCs can power small UAVs and drones, providing
longer flight times compared to batteries.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 66
Remote Sensing:

They are used in remote sensors and monitoring

equipment for environmental and scientific research, as
they can operate for extended periods without frequent
maintenance

Backup Power:

DMFCs can serve as backup power systems for critical

infrastructure and telecom towers, ensuring uninterrupted
power during outages

Medical Devices:

DMFCs can be used in portable medical devices, such as

infusion pumps and ventilators, where long-lasting,
reliable power sources are essential
UIE, ECE Deptt. 67
Transportation:

While DMFCs are less common in transportation

compared to hydrogen fuel cells, they have been
explored for small-scale applications in vehicles,
particularly in the past

DMFCs have advantages, such as their ability to use a

liquid fuel (methanol) that is easy to store and transport
However, they also have limitations, including lower
power density and the need for a reliable source of
methanol.
Research and development continue to improve the
efficiency and practicality of DMFCs for various
applications.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 68
Water Chemistry :
Water chemistry is the study of the chemical properties
and behaviour of water.
It focuses on understanding the composition, structure,
and reactivity of water molecules and how they interact
with other substances.

Key aspects of water chemistry include:

Molecular Structure:

Water is a simple molecule with the chemical formula H2O,

consisting of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one
oxygen atom. The bent shape of the water molecule and its polar
nature contribute to many of its distinctive properties
UIE, ECE Deptt. 69
Solvent Properties:

Water is often called the "universal solvent" because of its

ability to dissolve a wide range of substances.

This property is essential for various biological, chemical,

and industrial processes.

pH and Acidity:

The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in water

determines its pH level.

Water can be neutral (pH 7), acidic (pH less than 7), or
basic (pH greater than 7).

UIE, ECE Deptt. 70

Chemical Reactions:

Water participates in various chemical reactions, including

acid-base reactions, redox reactions, and hydrolysis
reactions.

These reactions are crucial in natural processes and various

industrial applications

Water Quality:

Water chemistry is used in analysing and maintaining the

quality of water for drinking, agriculture, industrial use, and
environmental protection

It involves the measurement and control of various

parameters, such as dissolved oxygen, pH and the presence
of contaminants UIE, ECE Deptt. 71
Water Treatment:

The purification and treatment of water to make it safe for

consumption and various applications involve water
chemistry.

This includes processes like chlorination, coagulation,

filtration and softening.

Environmental Impact:

Water chemistry also useful in understanding and

mitigating environmental issues such as water pollution,
eutrophication and the effects of various chemicals on
aquatic ecosystems

UIE, ECE Deptt. 72

Industrial Applications:

Many industries rely on water chemistry for

processes like cooling, boiler water treatment and
wastewater treatment.

Optimizing water chemistry in industrial settings is

crucial for efficiency and environmental compliance.

Natural Water Systems:

Understanding the chemistry of natural bodies of

water such as rivers, lakes, and oceans is essential
for ecological and environmental studies

It helps researchers evaluate the health of aquatic

ecosystems and the impacts of human activities
UIE, ECE Deptt. 73
Water chemistry is a multidisciplinary field that draws
from various areas of chemistry including physical
chemistry, analytical chemistry and environmental
chemistry

It is vital for addressing the challenges of water resource

management, environmental protection, and sustainable
development.

Researchers in this field work to ensure the safe and

responsible use of this precious resource while
minimizing its negative impacts on the environment

UIE, ECE Deptt. 74

Sources and Impurities in water are diverse, as water can
come from various natural and human-made sources, and
its quality can be influenced by a wide range of impurities

Sources of Water:
Surface Water:
This includes water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and
ponds. Surface water is exposed to various contaminants
and impurities from the surrounding environment.

Groundwater:
Water from underground aquifers and wells. Groundwater
is generally less susceptible to surface contaminants but
can contain naturally occurring minerals and trace
elements.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 75
Rainwater:
Collected rainwater can be a source of freshwater in
some regions.
Its quality depends on local atmospheric conditions and
potential contaminants from collection surfaces

Desalination:
In areas with limited freshwater resources, seawater
desalination plants convert seawater into freshwater
through processes like reverse osmosis or distillation

Municipal Water Supply:

Water provided by public water utilities.

It often comes from a combination of surface water and

groundwater sources and undergoes treatment
processes UIE, ECE Deptt. 76
Industrial Effluents:
Water used in industrial processes that may contain
various pollutants and contaminants, depending on the
industry

Wastewater:
Water that has been used in homes, businesses, and
industries and then discharged into sewage systems or
treatment facilities

Impurities in Water:
Suspended Solids:

Particles, such as sand, silt, and organic matter, that are

suspended in water.
They can affect water clarity and can be removed through
filtration. UIE, ECE Deptt. 77
Dissolved Minerals:

Water can naturally contain minerals like calcium,

magnesium, and iron

High concentrations of these minerals leads to hardness in

water and affect its taste and suitability for various
purposes

Pathogens:

Microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites,

can contaminate water and pose health risks if ingested.

Proper disinfection (e.g., chlorination) is essential to

eliminate pathogens.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 78
Chemical Contaminants:
These include a wide range of chemical substances, such
as heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury), pesticides, industrial
chemicals, and pharmaceuticals
These contaminants can originate from industrial
discharges, agricultural runoff, and domestic use

Organic Compounds:
Organic pollutants like volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), synthetic chemicals, and solvents can leach into
water from various sources, including industrial processes
and runoff from roads.

Nutrients:
Excess nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus
leads to eutrophication, promoting the growth of algae and
harmful aquatic plants. This disrupts aquatic ecosystems
and lead to water quality issues
UIE, ECE Deptt. 79
Turbidity:

The cloudiness or haziness of water caused by fine

particles in suspension

High turbidity affects water aesthetics and interfere with

disinfection processes

Color:

Natural organic matter imparts color to water. Elevated

color levels can be aesthetically displeasing and may
affect water treatment processes

Color in water is generally a result of dissolved

organic material while turbidity is a result of tiny
particles suspended inUIE,the water column
ECE Deptt. 80
Sediments:

Coarse sediments like gravel and rocks can accumulate in

water sources, affecting water quality and posing a risk to
water infrastructure

Gases:

Dissolved gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are

essential for aquatic life. However, elevated levels of
certain gases, such as methane, can be problematic in
some situations

Radioactive Elements:

Natural radioactive substances, like radon and radium,

can be present in groundwater and pose health risks
if they reach high concentrations.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 81
Micro plastics:

Small plastic particles that can enter water sources from

various sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic
items and microfiber shedding from textiles

Assessing and addressing impurities in water is a complex

task that involves water treatment, monitoring, and
regulation to ensure safe and clean water for various uses,
including drinking, industrial processes, and environmental
protection.
Water quality standards and regulations vary by region and
are designed to protect public health and the environment.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 82

Potable water :
often referred to as drinking water, is water that is safe and
suitable for human consumption.
It meets specific quality standards and is free from
contaminants and impurities that could pose a threat to
human health.
The World Health Organization (WHO) provides guidelines
and specifications for potable water quality to ensure that
people have access to safe drinking water.
These standards are widely recognized and adopted globally
to protect public health.
The key specifications for potable water as per WHO
standards include:
UIE, ECE Deptt. 83
Microbiological Quality:
Absence of fecal coliforms:

Potable water should be free from fecal coliform bacteria,

as their presence is an indicator of potential fecal
contamination and the risk of waterborne diseases
Chemical Quality:
pH: The pH of potable water should typically be in the
range of 6.5 to 8.5. This range ensures that water is not
too acidic or too alkaline, which could affect taste
and safety.
Turbidity:
Turbidity refers to the cloudiness or haziness of water
caused by suspended particles
Potable water should have low turbidity to ensure it
appears clear and pleasant
UIE, ECE Deptt.
to drink. 84
 Color: Water should be colorless or have minimal color,
indicating the absence of significant organic matter or
contaminants

 Chemical contaminants: The WHO guidelines specify

acceptable levels for various chemical substances,
including heavy metals (e.g., lead, arsenic), inorganic
compounds, organic chemicals, and disinfection by
products

 Salinity: Potable water should have a low concentration of

salts, as high salinity can affect the taste and suitability for
drinking

 Fluoride and Chloride: The concentrations of these ions

should be within specific limits to prevent adverse health
UIE, ECE Deptt. 85
  Total dissolved solids (TDS):
TDS represents the total concentration of inorganic
and organic substances dissolved in water.
While not a direct health concern, high TDS levels
can affect the water's taste and palatability

 Hardness: Water hardness, caused by calcium and

magnesium ions, should be within acceptable limits to
prevent scaling and soap inefficiency

Radiological Quality:

The presence of radioactive substances in drinking water

should be below established limits to prevent health risks

UIE, ECE Deptt. 86

UIE, ECE Deptt. 87
Biological Quality:
The water should be free from harmful microorganisms,
including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. This requires
effective disinfection and protection of water sources
from contamination.

Disinfection:
Water treatment processes should include adequate
disinfection methods, such as chlorination or ultraviolet
(UV) treatment, to ensure the elimination of pathogenic
microorganisms.

Residual Chlorine:
Potable water should contain a residual level of chlorine to
maintain its microbiological safety throughout the
distribution system while avoiding excessive chlorination
UIE, ECE Deptt. 88
by-products.
Odor and Taste:
Water should be free from unpleasant odors and tastes that
might discourage its consumption.

Temperature:
The temperature of drinking water should be within a
comfortable and safe range for consumption.

Storage and Distribution:

The storage and distribution systems for potable water
should be designed and maintained to prevent
recontamination and ensure the water remains safe to
drink.
Specific water quality standards and regulations may vary
from one region to another, but the WHO guidelines serve as
a globally recognized benchmark
UIE, ECE Deptt. for safe drinking water 89
Water hardness is the concentration of certain minerals,
primarily calcium and magnesium ions, dissolved in water
These minerals can make water "hard" and can have both
beneficial and undesirable effects depending on the
context.
The hardness of water is expressed in terms of calcium
carbonate equivalent, usually measured in milligrams per
liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm).

Water hardness is attributed to the presence of calcium

(Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions, which can originate
from geological formations, particularly in regions with
limestone or dolomite rock

These ions enters in water sources through the

dissolution of minerals as water passes through geological
UIE, ECE Deptt. 90
strata.
Water hardness is divided into two main categories:
Temporary Hardness:
Temporary hardness is primarily due to the presence of
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) of calcium and magnesium

It can be removed by boiling the water, which causes the

bicarbonate ions to precipitate as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) or magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)

Permanent Hardness:
Permanent hardness is attributed to the presence of
non-carbonate salts of calcium and magnesium, such as
sulphates and chlorides
Unlike temporary hardness, permanent hardness cannot
be eliminated by boiling
It requires other methods, such as ion exchange or
chemical precipitation,UIE,
for ECE removal.
Deptt. 91
UIE, ECE Deptt. 92
UIE, ECE Deptt. 93
The determination of water hardness using EDTA
(ethylene-diamine-tetra acetic acid) titration is a widely
used and accurate method in analytical chemistry
EDTA is a chelating agent 3(Chelating agents are chemical
compounds that react with metal ions to form a stable, water-
soluble complex) that can complex with the calcium (Ca2+)
and magnesium (Mg2+) ions responsible for water
hardness
The procedure involves titrating a water sample with a
standardized EDTA solution until all the calcium and
magnesium ions have formed stable complexes with EDTA

UIE, ECE Deptt. 94

a step-by-step guide to perform the determination of water
hardness using EDTA titration:

UIE, ECE Deptt. 95

 Materials and Reagents:

 Sample of water with unknown hardness

 EDTA solution (standardized)
 Buffer solution (usually ammonium chloride/ammonia
buffer at pH 10)
 Eriochrome Black T or calmagite indicator (or any other
suitable indicator)
 pH meter or pH indicator paper
 Burette
 Erlenmeyer flask
 Pipettes or burettes for precise measurements
 Deionized or distilled water (for dilutions and rinsing)

UIE, ECE Deptt. 96

 Procedure:
Preparation of the Sample:
 If the water sample is highly coloured or turbid, it may
need to be filtered or clarified.
 Use a filtration setup with a suitable filter paper or a
centrifuge to remove particulate matter.

Preparation of the Buffer Solution:

 Prepare the pH 10 buffer solution by mixing ammonium
chloride and ammonia (NH4Cl/NH3) in a suitable
container
 Ensure the pH is around 10
 The buffer solution helps maintain a stable pH during
the titration.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 97
Calibration of the EDTA Solution:
 Carefully measure the volume of the EDTA solution in
a burette and titrate it against a known concentration
of calcium or magnesium standard solution.
 Record the volume and calculate the exact
concentration of the EDTA solution.

Sample Titration:
 In a clean Erlenmeyer flask, add a measured volume
(usually 50 mL) of the water sample.
 If the water is hard, add a few drops of the Eriochrome
Black T or calmagite indicator, which will change color
during the titration.
 Add a small amount of the prepared buffer solution to
the flask. The buffer solution helps maintain a constant
pH.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 98
 Start titrating the sample with the standardized EDTA
solution from the burette

 The EDTA will chelate with the calcium and magnesium

ions in the sample, causing the color change in the
indicator

 Continue titration slowly until the color changes from the

initial color to a stable endpoint color

 For Eriochrome Black T, the color changes from wine-red

(free calcium/magnesium ions) to blue (complexed
calcium/magnesium ions)

 Record the volume of EDTA solution required to reach the

endpoint. UIE, ECE Deptt. 99
Calculation:
 Use the volume and concentration of the standardized
EDTA solution and stoichiometry to calculate the
hardness of the water sample in milligrams per liter
(mg/L) or parts per million (ppm) of calcium carbonate
equivalent (CaCO3).

The calculation involves multiplying the volume of EDTA

solution used by its concentration and a factor that
represents the conversion from the standard used (usually
CaCO3) to calcium or magnesium ions.

The EDTA titration method is an accurate way to determine

water hardness and is used in water quality testing,
particularly for municipal and industrial water supplies
UIE, ECE Deptt. 100
UIE, ECE Deptt. 101
Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD), is a key water quality
parameter used to measure the amount of dissolved
oxygen consumed by microorganisms in a water sample
as they decompose organic matter

BOD is an important indicator of water pollution and the

overall health of aquatic ecosystems

It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per liter (mg/L) of

water and measured over a specific period, commonly 5
days, referred to as "5-day BOD" or BOD5.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 102

key aspects of Biological Oxygen Demand:

1. Measurement and Purpose:

 BOD measures the rate at which microorganisms
(bacteria, fungi, etc.) break down organic substances in
water, such as sewage, plant debris, and other
contaminants.

 It is expressed as the amount of oxygen consumed by

these microorganisms during a specific time frame
(usually 5 days) as they metabolize and decompose the
organic matter.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 103

Significance:
 Elevated BOD levels indicate the presence of organic
pollution in water, which can be harmful to aquatic life

 High BOD can lead to oxygen depletion, making water

unsuitable for fish and other aquatic organisms

 BOD serves as a critical parameter in assessing the

efficiency of wastewater treatment processes and the
impact of discharges into natural water bodies.

UIE, ECE Deptt. 104

Procedure:
 To measure BOD, a water sample is collected and
divided into two portions
 One portion is analysed immediately to determine the
initial dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration
 The second portion is incubated in the dark at a
specified temperature (usually 20°C) for a designated
period, commonly 5 days
 During this time, microorganisms decompose the
organic matter, consuming oxygen in the process

After the incubation period, the final DO concentration is

measured

The difference between the initial and final DO

concentrations is used toUIE,calculate
ECE Deptt. the BOD value 105
Units and Interpretation:
 BOD is expressed in units of mg/L of oxygen. The lower
the BOD value, the cleaner the water, as it indicates less
organic pollution and a lower demand for oxygen.
 Low BOD values are typical of pristine, well-oxygenated
water bodies, while high BOD values indicate pollution
and can lead to oxygen depletion and harm to aquatic
life.
5. Application:
 BOD testing is a standard procedure used to assess the
quality of wastewater and determine the effectiveness of
sewage treatment plants in removing organic pollutants
Regulatory agencies often use BOD measurements to
establish discharge limits and water quality standards to
protect aquatic ecosystems and
UIE, ECE Deptt. public health. 106
Limitations:
 BOD only provides information about the biodegradable
fraction of organic matter. Some refractory (non-
biodegradable) organic compounds may not be fully
accounted for.
 The BOD test is time-consuming, taking 5 days for a
standard measurement, which can be a drawback in
situations requiring rapid results.
In summary, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a critical
parameter for assessing water quality and pollution levels
in aquatic systems. It is a fundamental tool in
environmental monitoring and wastewater treatment,
helping to ensure the health of ecosystems and the safety
of water resources.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 107
Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD), is a water quality
parameter used to quantify the amount of oxygen required
to chemically oxidize the organic and inorganic substances
in a water sample
COD is a valuable analytical tool for assessing the level of
pollutants and the overall contamination in water bodies,
industrial effluents, and wastewater
It is typically expressed in milligrams of oxygen per liter
(mg/L) of water.

The key aspects of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) are:

UIE, ECE Deptt. 108

Measurement and Purpose: COD measures the amount
of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize the organic matter
and some inorganic substances in a water sample, such as
ammonia and sulphides

It is used to determine the overall level of pollution in water,

including the presence of organic compounds, nitrogen
compounds, and reduced sulphur compounds
Significance:
 Elevated COD levels in water indicate the presence of
pollutants and contaminants, including organic
compounds and chemicals that can degrade water quality
and harm aquatic life.
 COD is essential for evaluating the efficiency of
wastewater treatment processes, industrial discharges,
and the impact of pollutants on natural water bodies 109
UIE, ECE Deptt.
Procedure:
 To measure COD, a water sample is oxidized using a
strong chemical oxidizing agent, typically potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7), under acidic conditions
 During the reaction, the organic and inorganic substances
in the sample are chemically oxidized, consuming oxygen.
 The amount of oxygen consumed is determined by titration
or spectrophotometric methods, and the result is
expressed as COD in mg/L
4. Units and Interpretation:
 COD is expressed in units of mg/L of oxygen
 A higher COD value indicates a greater demand for oxygen
and suggests a higher level of pollution and contamination
in the water
UIE, ECE Deptt. 110
Application:
 COD testing is widely used in environmental monitoring,
water quality assessment, and the evaluation of industrial
and municipal wastewater treatment processes

 Regulatory agencies often set COD limits for industrial

discharges to control pollution and protect water bodies

UIE, ECE Deptt. 111

Differences Between BOD and COD:
 BOD and COD serve similar purposes in assessing water
quality, but they measure oxygen demand through different
mechanisms. BOD measures the oxygen demand resulting
from microbial decomposition of organic matter, while COD
measures the oxygen demand from both microbial and
chemical oxidation.
 COD provides a more rapid result (typically a few hours)
compared to the BOD test, which takes 5 days.
 COD measures both biodegradable and non-biodegradable
substances, making it more suitable for assessing industrial
effluents and water bodies containing refractory organic
compounds.
 BOD is more specific to organic pollution, while COD provides
a broader assessment of pollution from both organic and
inorganic sources.
UIE, ECE Deptt. 112