UNIT 1

Semiconductor Devices
 PN junction diode
• A PN junction is a device formed by joining p-
type with n-type semiconductors and
separated by a thin junction is called a PN
junction diode.
Symbol
 ZENER DIODE
• Zener diode is designed to operate in the
breakdown region.
• It is heavily doped than ordinary diode.
 Operation of zener diode
• Under FB,it operates same as ordinary PN
diode.
• Under RB,breakdown of juncition occurs.
• For heavily doped,breakdown occurs at lower
reverse voltage.
• For lightly doped,breakdown occurs at higher
reverse voltage.
Full wave Bridge Rectifier
Operation of Bridge Rectifier
 FILTERS
• Filters are used to minimize the undesirable ac
ie ripple leaving only the dc component to
appear at the output.
• Types:
• 1.Inductor filter
• 2.Capacitor filter
• 3.LC filter
• 4.CLC filter
Capacitor filter
• The property of capacitor is that it allows ac
component and blocks dc component.
• It shorts the ripple to ground but leave the dc
to appear at the output.
• During positive half cycle,C charges upto peak
value of transformer secondary Vm and try to
maintain this as input falls to zero.
• C discharges through load slowly until Vm
again increases to a value greater than C
voltage.
LC FILTER
• Ripple factor is independent of load
resistance.
• If the value of inductance is increased,it will
increase the time of conduction.
• At some critical value of L,one diode will
always be conducting.
 CLIPPERS
• Clipping circuits (also known as limiters,
amplitude selectors, or slicers), are used to
remove the part of a signal that is above or
below some defined reference level.
Positive Clipper
 Clamper
• A clamper is an electronic circuit that fixes either the positive or the
negative peak excursions of a signal to a defined value by shifting its
DC value.
• The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the
signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the
peaks at the reference level.
• A diode clamp (a simple, common type) consists of a diode, which
conducts electric current in only one direction and prevents the
signal exceeding the reference value; and a capacitor which
provides a DC offset from the stored charge.
• The capacitor forms a time constant with the resistor load which
determines the range of frequencies over which the clamper will be
effective
BJT
 Field Effect Transistor
• FET is a device in which the flow of current
through the conducting region is controlled by
an electric field .Hence the name Field Effect
Transistor.
• As current conduction is only by majority
carriers , it is said to be a uni polar device.
 Current Controlled vs Voltage Controlled Devices

January 2004 ELEC 121 79

Types of FET
JFET
 Transfer Characteristics
The input-output transfer characteristic of the JFET is not as straight
forward as it is for the BJT

In a BJT,  (hFE) defined the relationship between IB (input current) and IC

(output current).

In a JFET, the relationship (Shockley’s Equation) between V GS (input

voltage) and ID (output current) is used to define the transfer characteristics,
and a little more complicated (and not linear):
2
 VGS 
ID = IDSS  1 - 
 VP 
As a result, FET’s are often referred to a square law devices

January 2004 ELEC 121 85

 JFET Construction
There are two types of JFET’s: n-channel and p-channel.
The n-channel is more widely used.

There are three terminals: Drain (D) and Source (S) are connected to n-channel
January 2004 Gate (G) is connected
ELECto
121the p-type material 86
 JFET Operating Characteristics
There are three basic operating conditions for a JFET:
JFET’s operate in the depletion mode only
A. VGS = 0, VDS is a minimum value depending on IDSS and the drain and source
resistance
B. VGS < 0, VDS at some positive value and
C. Device is operating as a Voltage-Controlled Resistor

For an n channel JFET, VGS may never be positive*

For an p channel JFET, VGS may never be negative*

January 2004 ELEC 121 87

 N-Channel JFET Operation

The nonconductive depletion region becomes thicker with increased reverse bias.
(Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.)

January 2004 ELEC 121 97

 Saturation

At the pinch-off point:

• any further increase in VGS does not produce any increase in ID. VGS at
pinch-off is denoted as Vp.
• ID is at saturation or maximum. It is referred to as I DSS.
• The ohmic value of the channel is at maximum.
•The region to the left of the pinch-off point is called the ohmic region.
•The JFET can be used as a variable resistor, where V GS controls the drain-source
January 2004 ELEC 121 98
resistance (rd). As VGS becomes more negative, the resistance (r d) increases.
 Transfer (Transconductance) Curve

From this graph it is easy to determine the value of I D for a given value of VGS
It is also possible to determine IDSS and VP by looking at the knee where VGS is 0

January 2004 ELEC 121 99

 p-Channel JFET’s

p-Channel JFET operates in a similar manner as the n-channel JFET except the
voltage polarities and current directions are reversed

January 2004 ELEC 121 100

 P-Channel JFET Characteristics

As VGS increases more positively

• the depletion zone increases
• ID decreases (ID < IDSS)
• eventually ID = 0A
Also note that at high levels of VDS the JFET reaches a breakdown situation. ID increases
uncontrollably if VDS > VDSmax.
101
 MOSFET
• MOSFET Field effect transistor is a uni polar
transistor, which acts as a voltage-controlled
current device.
N channel Depletion MOSFET
N channel Enhancement MOSFET
VI Characteristics of MOSFET
 Depletion Mode MOSFET Construction

The Drain (D) and Source (S) leads connect to the to n-doped regions
These N-doped regions are connected via an n-channel
This n-channel is connected to the Gate (G) via a thin insulating layer of SiO 2
The n-doped material lies on a p-doped substrate that may have an additional
terminal connection called SS

January 2004 ELEC 121 107

 Basic Operation

A D-MOSFET may be biased to operate in two modes:

the Depletion mode or the Enhancement mode

January 2004 ELEC 121 108

 D-MOSFET Depletion Mode Operation

The transfer characteristics are similar to the JFET

In Depletion Mode operation:
When VGS = 0V, ID = IDSS
When VGS < 0V, ID < IDSS
2
When VGS > 0V, ID > IDSS  VGS 
The formula used to plot the Transfer Curve, is: ID = IDSS  1 - 
 VP 
January 2004 ELEC 121 109
 D-MOSFET Enhancement Mode Operation

Enhancement Mode operation

In this mode, the transistor operates with VGS > 0V, and ID increases above IDSS
Shockley’s equation, the formula used to plot the Transfer Curve, still applies but
VGS is positive: 2
 VGS 
ID = IDSS  1 - 
 VP 

January 2004 ELEC 121 110

 p-Channel Depletion Mode MOSFET

The p-channel Depletion mode MOSFET is similar to the n-channel except that
the voltage polarities and current directions are reversed

January 2004 ELEC 121 111

 n-Channel E-MOSFET showing channel length L and channel width W

January 2004 ELEC 121 112

 Enhancement Mode MOSFET Construction

The Drain (D) and Source (S) connect to the to n-doped regions
These n-doped regions are not connected via an n-channel without an external
voltage
The Gate (G) connects to the p-doped substrate via a thin insulating layer of SiO 2
The n-doped material lies on a p-doped substrate that may have an additional
terminal connection called SS
January 2004 ELEC 121 113
 E-MOSFET Symbols

January 2004 ELEC 121 114

 Basic Operation

The Enhancement mode MOSFET only operates in the enhancement mode.

VGS is always positive

IDSS = 0 when VGS < VT
As VGS increases above VT, ID increases
If VGS is kept constant and VDS is increased, then ID saturates (IDSS)
The saturation level, VDSsat is reached.

January 2004 ELEC 121 115

 Transfer Curve

ID(on)
k=
To determine ID given VGS: ID = k (VGS - VT)
2
(VGS(ON) - VT)2
where VT = threshold voltage or voltage at which the MOSFET turns on.
k = constant found in the specification sheet
The PSpice determination of k is based on the geometry of the device:
 W  KP 
k =   where KP = μNCOX
 L  2 

January 2004 ELEC 121 116

 p-Channel Enhancement Mode MOSFETs

The p-channel Enhancement mode MOSFET is similar to the n-channel except

that the voltage polarities and current directions are reversed.

January 2004 ELEC 121 117

 Summary Table

JFET D-MOSFET E-MOSFET

January 2004 ELEC 121 118

 UNIT 2

Optoelectronic Devices
 Introduction
• Optoelectronics is considered as a sub-field
of Photonics.
• It is the study and application of semiconductor
devices that source, detect and control light.

Principles of Operation
(i) Photoconduction
(ii) Electroluminescence
 Photoconductive Effect
When radiation is incident on a semiconductor, some
of the energy is absorbed - electron-hole pairs are
generated which is responsible for the increase in
conductivity.
• Energy of a photon,

• For E<Eg , the energy is inadequate to transfer an electron to

conduction band and the light passes through the material without
absorption.
 Photoconductive Effect
• When E>Eg , electrons in the valence band
absorbs the incident photon and get excited to
the conduction band
• Electron hole pairs are generated in the material
in addition to the thermally created carriers.
• The conductivity of the material increases. Such
materials are called photoconductors.
• Minimum frequency to cause photoconduction,
fc = Eg /h
 1.Photoconductive Cell(LDR)
• Also known as Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR)
• Made up of Cadmium sulphide or Lead
sulphide.
• LDR resistance decreases in the presence of
light and increases in the absence of light.
• Can be used in control circuits to control the
current.
 LDR contd…

• ‘R’ limits the amount of current I in the circuit

• In the absence of light, LDR resistance is very high
and current I is low. The voltage drop across ‘R’ is
very low
• When the cell is illuminated, it’s resistance decreases
and the voltage drop across R increases.
 2. Photovoltaic Cell
• Light sensitive semiconductor device,
producing light when illuminated.
• Used to supply small amount of electrical
power.
• Made up of semiconductors like Si, Ge, or Se.
• The generated voltage increases as the
intensity of incident light increases.
 2.1 Solar Cell
• Solar Cell is a photo voltaic cell
• When sun light incidents on the device, it is
converted into electrical energy
• It is a PN junction device.
• When light falls on the junction,
a voltage develops across it.
• An average cell produces about 30 mW per sq.
inches of surface for a load of 4 ohms.
 3. Photo Diode
• Used as a photo detector in optical communication systems
• Converts Light energy into Electrical energy
• It is a PN junction device operated in reverse bias.

• When light falls on the reverse biased junction, electron hole

pairs are generated.
 Photodiode characteristics

• The photo-generated current is proportional to

the intensity of light (Level of Illumination) and
also get influenced by the frequency of the
photon.
• Minimum leakage current in the absence of
light- Dark current
 4. Phototransistor
• Light detector that combines the functions of a photo diode and a
transistor amplifier

• The device is operated in reverse bias applied between the C-E

terminals and Base terminal is kept open.
• The incident light on the C-B junction creates electron hole pairs
and this constitute the base current.
 Phototransistor Characteristics
• The current is dependent mainly on the
intensity of incident light and is less affected
by the applied bias voltage.
 5. Light Emitting Diode

• A PN junction device emitting light under forward bias.

• Principle of operation is Electroluminescence
• Made up of direct band gap materials such as GaP, GaAsP etc
• In direct band gap materials, the excess energy due to
electron –hole recombination is emitted as light.
• The brightness of the emitted light is directly proportional to
the forward bias current.
 LED contd..

• LEDs – realized by epitaxy (MOCVD, MBE etc. )

• p-layer is grown over the n-layer.
• Under forward bias, electron-hole pair recombination
at the junction results in light emission
(electroluminescence)
• Metal contacts are fabricated on the top p-layer and
bottom n-layer.
 LED Contd..
• The wavelength of emitted light depends on the
energy gap of the material.
 GaAs- Infrared
 GaP- Red/Green
 GaAsP-Red/Yellow

o Low Power requirement- 10-150mW

o Fast switching speed of 1ns
o Long lifetime (100000+ hours)
o Used in Burglar alarms, multimeters, calculator, digital
meters etc
 5.1 Infrared Emitters
• Emits infrared wavelength when forward
biased.
• Made of GaAs.
• The recombination of electrons and holes in
the PN junction result in emission of photons
from the junction
• The emitted infrared has a typical peak at
0.9μm.
 6. Liquid Crystal Display
• Liquid crystals exhibits properties of both liquid and a
crystalline structure.
• Two types- Nematic and cholesteric
• Nematic - Molecules are aligned parallel to a unique
axis.
 When subjected to a strong electric
field, the molecular arrangement get
disturbed and the material turns opaque.
 The removal of electric field will restore the molecular
arrangement and the material turns transparent.
 LCD contd…
1. Dynamic Scattering Type LCD:

• When excited by a sufficiently strong field,

the liquid crystal turns opaque and the cell
scatters light and hence appears to be bright-
Dynamic Scattering
 LCD Contd..
2. Field Effect Type
•Liquid crystal used is Twisted Nematic Type

•The polarizers on opposite ends passes the

oppositely polarized light.
 LCD Contd..
Field Effect type Operation
•When unexcited, the
material twists the
light and the oppositely
polarized top polarizer
passes light
•Under excited state ,
molecular arrangement disturbed and it no longer
twists the light. Hence the top polarizer blocks the
light and cell appears dark
Comparison
 7. Optocoupler
• Provides optical isolation between electric
circuits- opto isolator
• Consists of an infrared LED as source and
Photodetector as the sensor
• Photodetector- Phototransistor Darlington
pair, Photo SCR, or PIN photodiode
• Used to interface different types of logic
circuits
 Optocoupler Contd..
• LED transduce the input voltage to an equivalent
light intensity
• Photo detector transduce the light
back to output voltage
• It permits one way transfer of the
electrical signal from LED to photo detector
without ant electrical connection between them
• High isolation resistance 1011 ohms
• Isolation voltage- up to 2500 V.
Reference:
1. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R. Muthusubramanian &
S. Salivahanan.
2. Optoelectronics and Photonics: Principles and Practices, Safa O. Kasap.
 UNIT 3

TRANSDUCERS
 INTRODUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS

• A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy

to other form. It converts the measurand to a usable
electrical signal.
• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction
element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
1. Ruggedness
2. Linearity
3. Repeatability
4. Accuracy
5. High stability and reliability
6. Speed of response
7. Sensitivity
8. Small size
 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected
on the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating
principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive ,
optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to
produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when
measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation where the
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the
transducer is subjected to variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-
output relationship as described by the transfer function so as
to avoid errors.
 Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III.On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV.Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of power
for their operation. Therefore they are also called as self
generating type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which
operate under the energy conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent
electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used.
Piezoelectric Transducer
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source of
power for their operation. So they are not
self generating type transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power
source.
III.These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as
electrical device. The mechanical device converts the physical
quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such
mechanical device are called as the primary transducers,
because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured.
•The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into
a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.
 CONTD

•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary

transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
Current induced in a coil.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER:

•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION :

•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :

•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is

converted to voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar material is illuminated as shown in
fig.
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :

•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer and Inverse Transducer

TRANSDUCER:

•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

electrical quantity.

INVERSE TRANSDUCER:

• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a
simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element
in helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
 STRAIN GAUGE
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE
• The type of strain gauge are as
1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
• This gauge consist of a wire stretched between
two point in an insulating medium such as air.
The wires may be made of various copper, nickel,
crome nickle or nickle iron alloys.
• In fig the element is connected via a rod to
diaphragm which is used for sensing the pressure.
The wire are tensioned to avoid buckling when
they experience the compressive force.
• The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in
transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire
connected in Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
• At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are
nominally equal with the result the output voltage of the
bridge is equal to zero.
• Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the
displacement increases a tension in two wire and decreases it
in the other two thereby increase the resistance of two wire
which are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the
remaining two wire .
• This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output
voltage which is proportional to the input displacement and
hence to the applied pressure .
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress
analysis and for construction of transducer.
• A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine
resistance wire. The grid is cemented to carrier which may be
a thin sheet of paper bakelite or teflon.
• The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as
to prevent it from any mechanical demage.
• The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
specimen which permit a good transfer of strain from carrier
to grid of wires.
 BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
• It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to
support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding
operation, successful starain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface
preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge,
the bond has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the
plastic backing material on which the gauge is mounted .
.
It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this
backing and adhesive material should be quick
drying type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which
have low and stable resistivity and also a low
resistance temperature coefficent
 Contd.
• This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the
bonded metal wire strain gauges.
• The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
• Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain
gauge and are used for most general purpose stress
analysis application and for many transducers.
 SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
• Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge
factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher
change in resistance that can be measured with good accuracy.
• The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is
applied to it. The semiconductor gauge depends for their action
upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of resistance due
to change in resistivity.
• Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for
semiconductor gauges.
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
• Resistance of metal increase with increases in
temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction
of platinum résistance thermometer. The platinum
wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating
material such as mica or ceramic.
• This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
• This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid
whose temperature is to be measured.
• The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the
change in temperature of the gas or liquid
• This type of sensor have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity as they are made from metals
they are also known as resistance temperature
detector
• Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type
for immersion in medium whose temperature is to be
measured or controlled.
 THERMISTOR
•Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
•Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are
made of semiconductor material which have negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature.
•Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-60º Thermistor are composed
of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as magnese,
nickle, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
 Contd.
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance for
small change in temperature. In some cases the
resistance of themistor at room temperature may
decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC rise in
temperature.
 Thermocouples
See beck Effect
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends,
thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
 VARIABLE-INDUCTANCE
TRANSDUCERS
• An inductive electromechanical
transducer is a transducer which converts
the physical motion into the change in
inductance.

• Inductive transducers are mainly used

for displacement measurement.
• The inductive transducers are of the self generating
or the passive type. The self generating inductive
transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the
motion between a conductor and magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor.
• The variable inductance transducers work on the
following principles.
• Variation in self inductance
• Variation in mutual inductance
 PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION OF SELF
INDUCTANCE
• Let us consider an inductive transducer having
N turns and reluctance R. when current I is
passed through the transducer, the flux
produced is
• Φ = Ni / R
• Differentiating w.r.t. to t,
• dΦ/dt = N/R * di/dt
• The e.m.f. induced in a coil is given by
• e = N * dΦ/dt
• e = N * N/R * di/dt
• e = N2 / R * di/dt
• Self inductance is given by
• L = e/di/dt = N2 / R
• The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is R = Ɩ/μA
• Therefore L = N2 / Ɩ/μA = N2 μA / Ɩ
• From eqn we can see that the self inductance may
vary due to
i. Change in number of turns N
ii. Change in geometric configuration
iii. Change in permeability of magnetic circuit
 CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN NUMBER OF TURNS N
• From eqn we can see the output may vary with the
variation in the number of turns. As inductive
transducers are mainly used for displacement
measurement, with change in number of turns the
self inductance of the coil changes in-turn changing
the displacement
• Fig shows transducers used for linear and angular
displacement fig a shows an air cored transducer for
the measurement of linear displacement and fig b
shows an iron cored transducer used for angular
displacement measurement.
 CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN PERMEABILITY
• An inductive transducer that works on the principle of change
in self inductance of coil due to change in the permeability is
shown in fig
• As shown in fig the iron core is surrounded by a winding. If
the iron core is inside the winding then the permeability
increases otherwise permeability decreases. This cause the self
inductance of the coil to increase or decrease depending on the
permeability.
• The displacement can be measured using this transducer

Ferromagnetic
former

displacement coil
 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE INDUCTIVE
TRANSDUCER
• Fig shows a variable reluctance inductive transducer.
• As shown in fig the coil is wound on the ferromagnetic iron. The
target and core are not in direct contact with each other. They are
separated by an air gap.
• The displacement has to be measured is applied to the ferromagnetic
core
• The reluctance of the magnetic path is found by the size of the air
gap.
• The self inductance of coil is given by
• L = N2 / R = N2 / Ri + Ra
• N : number of turns
• R : reluctance of coil
• Ri : reluctance of iron path
• Ra : reluctance of air gap
 CONTD.

• The reluctance of iron path is negligible

• L = N2 / Ra
• Ra = la / μoA
• Therefore L œ 1 / la i.e. self inductance of the coil is inversely
proportional to the air gap la.
• When the target is near the core, the length is small. Hence the
self inductance is large. But when the target is away from the
core, the length is large. So reluctance is also large. This result
in decrease in self inductance i.e. small self inductance.
• Thus inductance is function of the distance of the target from
the core. Displacement changes with the length of the air gap,
the self inductance is a function of the displacement.
 PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE IN MUTUAL
INDUCTANCE
• Multiple coils are required for inductive transducers
that operate on the principle of change in mutual
inductance.
• The mutual inductance between two coils is given by
• M = KsqrtL1L2
• Where M : mutual inductance
• K : coefficient of coupling
• L1:self inductance of coil 1
• L2 : self inductance of coil 2
• By varying the self inductance or the coefficient of
coupling the mutual inductance can be varied
 DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT
TRANSDUCERS
• Usually the change in self inductance ΔL for
inductive transducers is insufficient for the detection
of stages of an instrumentation system.
• The differential arrangement comprises of a coil that
is divided in two parts as shown in fig a and b.
• In response to displacement, the inductance of one
part increases from L to L+ΔL while the inductance
of the other part decreases from L to L- ΔL. The
difference of two is measured so to get output 2 ΔL.
This will increase the sensitivity and minimize error.
• .
• Fig c shows an inductive transducer that provides
differential output. Due to variation in the reluctance,
the self inductance of the coil changes. This is the
principle of operation of differential output inductive
transducer
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer
comprises a coil former on to
which three coils are wound.
• The primary coil is excited
with an AC current, the
secondary coils are wound
such that when a ferrite core
is in the central linear
position, an equal voltage is
induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected
in opposite so that in the
central position the outputs
of the secondary cancels
each other out.
 LVDT contd…
• The excitation is applied to the primary
winding and the armature assists the
induction of current in to secondary
coils.
• When the core is exactly at the center
of the coil then the flux linked to both
the secondary winding will be equal.
Due to equal flux linkage the
secondary induced voltages (eo1 &
eo2) are equal but they have opposite
polarities. Output voltage eo is
therefore zero. This position is called
“null position”
• Now if the core is displaced from its null
position toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1
increases and flux linked to sec2 decreases.
Therefore eo1 > eo2 and the output voltage of
LVDT eo will be positive
• Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2
then the eo2 > eo1 and the output voltage of
LVDT eo will be negative.
 UNIT 4
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

212
 SYLLABUS
Number systems – binary codes –binary
arithmetic - Boolean algebra, laws & theorems
- simplification of Boolean expression - logic
gates - implementation of Boolean
expressions using logic gates - standard forms
of Boolean expression.

213
 NUMBERS
• We use numbers
• to communicate
• to perform tasks
• to quantify
• to measure
• Numbers have become symbols of the present
era
• Many consider what is not expressible in terms
of numbers is not worth knowing
Courtesy
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/106108099//
Digital%20Systems.pdf
214
General positional number system
• Any integer >= 2 can serve as the radix
• Digit position i has weight ri.
• The general form of a number is
– dp-1 dp-2, .... d1, d0 . d-1d-2 .... d-n
• p digits to the left of the point (radix point) and n
digits to the right of the point
Courtesy
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/106108099//
Digital%20Systems.pdf

215
General positional number system
• The value of the number is
D=
• Leading and trailing zeros have no values
• The values d is can take are limited by the
radix value
• A number like (357)5 is incorrect
Courtesy
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/106108099//
Digital%20Systems.pdf
216
 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
• Binary Number System uses 2 as its radix ï Has
only two numerals, 0 and 1
• Example: (N)2 = (11100110)2
• It is an eight digit binary number The binary
digits are also known as bits
Courtesy
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/106108099//
Digital%20Systems.pdf
217
BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION
• (N)2 = (11100110)2
– Its decimal value is given by,
– (N)2 = 1 x 27 + 1 x 26 + 1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 0 x 23
+ 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20= 128 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 4 +
2 + 0 = (230)10

Courtesy
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/106108099//
Digital%20Systems.pdf
218
 BINARY FRACTION TO DECIMAL
• (0.100)2=(?)10

0.1 0 0 0x2^-3=0.0000
0x2^-2=0.0000
1x2^-1=0.5000

219
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION

220
Decimal (Fraction) to Binary Conversion
• Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)
• Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
• Take the resultant fraction and repeat the
division
Example: (0.625)10 Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 * 2 = 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
221
 Octal Number System
• Base = 8
– 8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }
• Weights 64 8 1 1/8 1/64
– Weight = (Base) Position 5 1 2 7 4
• Magnitude 2 1 0 -1 -2
– Sum of “Digit x Weight” 2 1 0 -1
5 *8 +1 *8 +2 *8 +7 *8 +4 *8
-2

• Formal Notation =(330.9375)10

(512.74)8
Courtesy
www.cse.scu.edu/~dlewis/book1/2.ppt
222
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2 /8= 0 2 a2 = 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)8 = (257)8

Example: (0.3125)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)8 = (0.24)8

223
 Binary − Octal Conversion
Octal Binary
• 8=2 3
0 000
• Each group of 3 bits 1 001
represents an octal digit 2 010
Assume Zeros
Example: 3 011

( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 4 100
5 101
6 110
( 2 6 . 2 )8 7 111

Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary)

224
 Hexadecimal Number System
• Base = 16
– 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }
• Weights 256 16 1 1/1 1/25
6 6
– Weight = (Base) Position 1 E 5 7 A
• Magnitude 2 1 0 -1 -2
– Sum of “Digit x Weight”1 *162+14 *161+5 *160+7 *16-1+10 *16-2
• Formal Notation =(485.4765625)10
(1E5.7A)16
Courtesy
www.cse.scu.edu/~dlewis/book1/2.ppt
225
 Binary − Hexadecimal Conversion
Hex Binary
• 16 = 24 0
1
0000
0001

• Each group of 4 bits 2

3
0010
0011
represents a hexadecimal 4
5
0100
0101
digit Assume Zeros 6 0110
7 0111
Example: 8 1000
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
(1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110
F 1111

Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to

Binary) 226
 Octal − Hexadecimal Conversion
• Convert to Binary as an intermediate step
Example:
( 2 6 . 2 )8

Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to Octal)

227
Decimal, Binary, Octal & Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
228
 Binary Codes
• BCD Code
– A number with k decimal digits
will require 4k bits in BCD.
– Decimal 396 is represented in
BCD with 12bits as 0011 1001
0110, with each group of 4 bits
representing one decimal digit.
– A decimal number in BCD is
the same as its equivalent
binary number only when the
number is between 0 and 9.
– The binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and
have no meaning in BCD.
229
 Binary Code
• Example:
– Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value
in BCD and binary:

BCD addition

230
 Binary Code
• Example:
– Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

• Decimal Arithmetic: (+375) + (-240) = +135

231
 Binary Codes
• Other Decimal Codes

232
 Binary Codes
• Gray Code
– The advantage is that only bit in the code
group changes in going from one number to
the next.
• Error detection.
• Representation of analog data.
• Low power design.

000 001

010 011
100 101

110 111
1-1 and onto!! 233
 Binary Codes
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Character
Code

Courtesy
www.cse.scu.edu/~dlewis/book1/2.ppt
234
 Binary Codes
• ASCII Character Code

235
 Binary Arithmetic
• Binary addition
• Binary subtraction
• Binary multiplication
• Binary division

236
Complements of Binary Numbers

• 1’s complements
• 2’s complements

237
 Complements of Binary Numbers

• 1’s complement
• Change all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Courtesy
http://www.cameron.edu/~mpolson/fall08/EET_3333/Ch_01.ppt
 Complements of Binary Numbers

• 2’s complement
• Find 1’s complement and then add 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1

1’s complement 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Input bits
Adder Carry
Output bits (sum) In (add 1)

2’s complement 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

http://www.cameron.edu/~mpolson/fall08/EET_3333/Ch_01.ppt
 Binary Addition
• The steps used for a computer to complete
addition are usually greater than a human, but
their processing speed is far superior.
RULES
• 0+0=0
• 0+1=1
• 1+0=1
• 1 + 1 = 0 (With 1 to carry)
• 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (With 1 to carry)

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
240
 Binary Addition
EXAMPLE

1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 +

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic

241
 Binary Addition
EXAMPLE

1 0 01 1
1 0 1 1 +
0

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
242
 Binary Addition
EXAMPLE

1 01 01 1
1 0 1 1
+
0 0

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic

243
 Binary Addition
EXAMPLE

1 0 1 01 1
1 0 1 1 +
1 0 0

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
244
 Binary Addition
EXAMPLE

1 0 1 01 1
1

1 0 1 1 +

0 1 0 0

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic

245
 Binary Addition
EXAMPLE

1 0 1 01 1
1

1 0 1 1 +

10 1 0 0

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic

246
 Binary Addition
CHECK THE ANSWER

9 +
11
20

247
 Binary Subtraction
• Computers have trouble performing subtractions
so the following rule should be employed:
“X – X is the same as
X + -X”
• This is where two’s complement is used.

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
248
 Binary Subtraction
RULES
1. Convert the number to binary.
2. Perform two’s complement on the second
number.
3. Add both numbers together.

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
249
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 1
Convert 12 - 8 using two’s complement.
1. Convert to binary
12 = 000011002

8 = 00001000 2

2. Perform one’s complement on the 8 10

000010002

111101112

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
250
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 1
3. Perform two’s complement.
11110111 2

00000001 2 +
11111000 2

4. Add the two numbers together.

= 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 (Ignore insignificant bits)
2

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
251
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 2
What happens if the first number is larger than the
second?

Try 6 – 10
10 10

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic

252
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 2
1. Convert to binary
6 = 000001102

10 = 00001010 2

2. Perform one’s complement on the 10 10

000010102

111101012

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
253
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 2
3. Perform two’s complement.
11110101 2

00000001 2
+
=11110110 2

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic
254
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 2
4. Add the two numbers together.
00000110 2

11110110 2
+
= 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 (Ends with a negative bit)
2

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
255
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 2
5. Perform one’s complement on the result
11111100 2

00000011 2

6. Add 1 to the result.

00000011 2

00000001 2

=00000100 + 2

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic
256
 Binary Subtraction
EXAMPLE 2
7. We then add the sign bit back.
00000100 2

=10000100 2

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic
257
 Binary Multiplication
• Multiplication follows the general principal of
shift and add.
• The rules include:
• 0*0=0
• 0*1=0
• 1*0=0
• 1*1=1

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-
arithmetic
258
 Binary Multiplication
EXAMPLE 1
Complete 15 * 5 in binary.
1. Convert to binary
15 = 00001111 2

5 = 00000101 2

2. Ignore any insignificant zeros.

00001111 2

00000101 x2

259
 Binary Multiplication
EXAMPLE 1
3. Multiply the first number.
1111 2
x
101 2
1111 x 1 = 1111
1111

4. Now this is where the shift and takes place.

260
 Binary Multiplication
EXAMPLE 1
5. Shift one place to the left and multiple the
second digit.
1111 x 2 1111 x 0 = 0000
101 2

1111
Shift One Place
00000

261
 Binary Multiplication
EXAMPLE 1
6. Shift one place to the left and multiple the
third digit.
1111 x 2 1111 x 1 = 1111
101 2

1111
00000
Shift One Place
111100
262
 Binary Multiplication
EXAMPLE 1
7. Add the total of all the steps.
1111
00000 +
111100
1001011

8. Convert back to decimal to check.

263
 Binary Division
• Division in binary is similar to long division in decimal.
• It uses what is called a shift and subtract method.

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic

264
 Binary Division
Step 3: Determine if 1 0 1 (5) will fit into the first
bit of dividend.

101 11001

1 0 1(5) will not fit into 1(1)

Step 4: Place a zero above the first bit and try

the next bit.

265
 Binary Division
Step 5: Determine if 1 0 1 (5) will fit into the
next two bits of dividend.
0
101 11001

1 0 1(5) will not fit into 1 1(3)

Step 6: Place a zero above the second bit and try

the next bit.

266
 Binary Division
Step 7: Determine if 1 0 1 (5) will fit into the
next three bits of dividend.
0 0
101 11001

1 0 1(5) will fit into 1 1 0(6)

Step 8: Place a one above the third bit and times

it by the divisor (1 0 1)

267
 Binary Division
Step 9: The multiplication of the divisor should be placed
under the THREE bits you have used.
0 0 1

101 11001
101

A subtraction should take place, however you cannot

subtract in binary. Therefore, the two’s complement of
the 2nd number must be found and the two numbers
added together to get a result.
268
 Binary Division
Step 10: The two’s complement of 1 0 1 is 0 1 1
0 0 1

101 11001
+ 011
001

269
 Binary Division
Step 11: Determine if 1 0 1 will fit into the remainder
0 0 1. The answer is no so you must bring down the next
number.
0 0 1

101 11001
+ 011
0010

270
 Binary Division
Step 12: 1 01 does not fit into 0 0 1 0. Therefore, a zero is
placed above the last bit. And the next number is used.

101 101 00 01 10
011
+ 00101

271
 Binary Division
Step 13: 1 0 1 does fit into 1 0 1 so therefore, a one is
placed above the final number and the process of shift and
add must be continued.
0 0 1 0 1

101 11001
+ 011
00101
+
011
000

272
 Binary Division
Step 14: The final answer is 1 0 1 (5) remainder zero.

Courtesy
http://www.slideshare.net/gavhays/binary-arithmetic
273
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the
manipulation of variables that can have one of two
values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0,
or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by performing
operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT.
Courtesy
homepage.cs.uiowa.edu
274
 Boolean function
• Boolean function: Mapping from Boolean variables to
a Boolean value.
Boolean algebra: Deals with binary variables and logic
operations operating on those variables.

• Truth table:
– Represents relationship between a Boolean function and
its binary variables.
– It enumerates all possible combinations of arguments and
the corresponding function values.

275
 BASIC IDENTITIES OF BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
• Postulate 1 (Definition): A Boolean algebra is a closed algebraic
system containing a set K of two or more elements and the two
operators · and + which refer to logical AND and logical OR

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p

276
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(Existence of 1 and 0 element)
(1) x+0=x
(2) x ·0=0
(3) x+1=1
(4) x·1=1

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p

277
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra (Existence
of complement)
(5) x + x = x
(6) x · x = x
(7) x + x’ = x
(8) x · x’ = 0

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
278
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(Commutativity):
(9) x + y = y + x
(10) xy = yx

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
279
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(Associativity):
(11) x + ( y + z ) = ( x + y ) + z
(12) x (yz) = (xy) z

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
280
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(Distributivity):
(13) x ( y + z ) = xy + xz
(14) x + yz = ( x + y )( x + z)

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
281
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(DeMorgan’s Theorem)
(15) ( x + y )’ = x’ y’
(16) ( xy )’ = x’ + y’

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean
%20algebra.p

282
Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra (Involution)

(17) (x’)’ = x

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
283
 Function Minimization using Boolean Algebra

• Examples:

(a) a + ab = a(1+b)=a

(b) a(a + b) = a.a +ab=a+ab=a(1+b)=a.

(c) a + a'b = (a + a')(a + b)=1(a + b) =a+b

(d) a(a' + b) = a. a' +ab=0+ab=ab

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p

284
 The other type of question
Show that;
1- ab + ab' = a
2- (a + b)(a + b') = a

1- ab + ab' = a(b+b') = a.1=a

2- (a + b)(a + b') = a.a +a.b' +a.b+b.b'
= a + a.b' +a.b + 0
= a + a.(b' +b) + 0
= a + a.1 +0
= a +a=a
Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p

285
 More Examples
• Show that;
(a) ab + ab'c = ab + ac
(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c) = a + bc

(a) ab + ab'c = a(b + b'c)

= a((b+b').(b+c))=a(b+c)=ab+ac

(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c)

= (a.a + a.b' + a.c + ab +b.b' +bc)
=…
Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
286
 DeMorgan's Theorem
(a) (a + b)' = a'b'
(b) (ab)' = a' + b'

Generalized DeMorgan's Theorem

(a) (a + b + … z)' = a'b' … z'
(b) (a.b … z)' = a' + b' + … z‘

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p

287
 More DeMorgan's example
Show that: (a(b + z(x + a')))' =a' + b' (z' + x')

(a(b + z(x + a')))' = a' + (b + z(x + a'))'

= a' + b' (z(x + a'))'
= a' + b' (z' + (x + a')')
= a' + b' (z' + x'(a')')
= a' + b' (z' + x'a)
=a‘+b' z' + b'x'a
=(a‘+ b'x'a) + b' z'
=(a‘+ b'x‘)(a +a‘) + b' z'
= a‘+ b'x‘+ b' z‘
= a' + b' (z' + x')
Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
288
 More Examples
(a(b + c) + a'b)'=b'(a' + c')
ab + a'c + bc = ab + a'c
(a + b)(a' + c)(b + c) = (a + b)(a' + c)

Courtesy
grid.cs.gsu.edu/.../lec1%20boolean%20algebra.p
289
 LOGIC DIAGRAM & TRUTH TABLE
• Logic diagram: a graphical representation of a
circuit
– Each type of gate is represented by a specific
graphical symbol
• Truth table: defines the function of a gate by
listing all possible input combinations that the
gate could encounter, and the corresponding
output

4–290
 Gates
• Let’s examine the processing of the following
six types of gates
– NOT
– AND
– OR
– XOR
– NAND
– NOR
• Typically, logic diagrams are black and white, and the
gates are distinguished only by their shape

4–291
 NOT Gate
• A NOT gate accepts one input value
and produces one output value

Figure 4.1 Various representations of a NOT gate

4–292
 NOT Gate
• By definition, if the input value for a NOT gate
is 0, the output value is 1, and if the input
value is 1, the output is 0
• A NOT gate is sometimes referred to as an
inverter because it inverts the input value

4–293
 AND Gate
• An AND gate accepts two input signals
• If the two input values for an AND gate are
both 1, the output is 1; otherwise, the output
is 0

4–294 Figure 4.2 Various representations of an AND gate

 OR Gate
• If the two input values are both 0, the output
value is 0; otherwise, the output is 1

Figure 4.3 Various representations of a OR gate

4–295
 XOR Gate
• XOR, or exclusive OR, gate
– An XOR gate produces 0 if its two inputs are the
same, and a 1 otherwise
– Note the difference between the XOR gate
and the OR gate; they differ only in one
input situation
– When both input signals are 1, the OR gate
produces a 1 and the XOR produces a 0

4–296
 XOR Gate

Figure 4.4 Various representations of an XOR gate

4–297
 NAND and NOR Gates
• The NAND and NOR gates are essentially the
opposite of the AND and OR gates, respectively

Figure 4.5 Various representations of

a NAND gate

Figure 4.6 Various representations of

a NOR gate

298
 Review of Gate Processing
• A NOT gate inverts its single input value
• An AND gate produces 1 if both input values
are 1
• An OR gate produces 1 if one or the other or
both input values are 1

4–299
 Review of Gate Processing (cont.)

• An XOR gate produces 1 if one or the other

(but not both) input values are 1
• A NAND gate produces the opposite results of
an AND gate
• A NOR gate produces the opposite results of
an OR gate

4–300
 Gates with More Inputs
• Gates can be designed to accept three or more input
values
• A three-input AND gate, for example, produces an
output of 1 only if all input values are 1

4–301 Figure 4.7 Various representations of a three-input AND gate

 Combinational Circuits
• Gates are combined into circuits by using the output
of one gate as the input for another

4–302 Page 99
 Combinational Circuits

Page 100

• Because there are three inputs to this circuit, eight rows are
required to describe all possible input combinations
• This same circuit using Boolean algebra:
(AB + AC)
4–303
Now let’s go the other way; let’s take a Boolean
expression and draw
• Consider the following Boolean expression: A(B + C)

Courtesy for Slide 79-93

Based on the slides from computer science illuminated, Chapter 4,
Gates & circuits by Nell Dale & John Lewis
304
 Canonical and standard forms
• A Boolean (logic) function can be expressed in a variety of
algebraic forms. For example y = c · a’ + c · b = c(a’ + b) =
c(c’ + b + a’)
• Each algebraic form entails specific gate implementation.
• A Boolean function can be uniquely described by its truth
table, or in one of the canonical forms.

Courtesy
http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/courseware/
cse2306/2006/Lnts/L04d.pdf

305
 Canonical and standard forms(2)
• Two dual canonical forms of a Boolean function are
available: –
– The sum of minterms (SoM) form
– The product of maxterms (PoM) form
• A minterm is a product of all variables taken either in their
direct or complemented form
• A maxterm is a sum of all variables taken either in their
direct or complemented form
Courtesy
http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/courseware/
cse2306/2006/Lnts/L04d.pdf
306
 UNIT 5

Communication Systems
 Overview

Communication is the transfer of information from one place to

another.

This should be done

- as efficiently as possible
- with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
- as securely as possible

Communication System: Components/subsystems act together to

accomplish information transfer/exchange.
 Elements of a Communication System

Input Output
message message

Input Output
Transducer Transducer
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Input Transducer: The message produced by a source must be
converted by a transducer to a form suitable for the particular type
of communication system.
Example: In electrical communications, speech waves are converted
by a microphone to voltage variation.

Transmitter: The transmitter processes the input signal to produce a

signal suits to the characteristics of the transmission channel.
Signal processing for transmission almost always involves
modulation and may also include coding. In addition to modulation,
other functions performed by the transmitter are amplification,
filtering and coupling the modulated signal to the channel.
Channel: The channel can have different forms: The atmosphere (or free
space), coaxial cable, fiber optic, waveguide, etc.
The signal undergoes some amount of degradation from noise, interference and
distortion

Receiver: The receiver’s function is to extract the desired signal from the
received signal at the channel output and to convert it to a form suitable for
the output transducer.
Other functions performed by the receiver: amplification (the received signal
may be extremely weak), demodulation and filtering.

Output Transducer: Converts the electric signal at its input into the form
desired by the system user.
Example: Loudspeaker, personal computer (PC), tape recorders.
To be transmitted, Information (Data)
must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals.
 Electromagnetic Waves

.
 Electromagnetic Waves

.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wave length Frequency Transmission Propagation Representative Frequency
Designations Media Modes Applications

Extra High Satellite,

1 cm Frequency (EHF) Microwave relay, 100 GHz
Wave guide Earth-satellite radar.
Super High
10 cm Frequency (SHF) 10 GHz
Line-of-sight radio
Ultra High Wireless comm.
1m Frequency (UHF) service, 1 GHz
Cellular, pagers, UHF
TV
Very High Coaxial Cable Mobile, Aeronautical,
10m Frequency (VHF) Sky wave radio VHF TV and FM,
mobile radio 100 MHz
High Frequency Amateur radio, Civil
100m (HF) Defense 10 MHz

Medium High AM broadcasting

1 km Frequency (MF) Ground wave 1 MHz
radio
Low Frequency Aeronautical,
10 km (LF) Submarine cable, 100 kHz
Wire pairs
Navigation,
Very Low Transoceanic radio
100km Frequency (VLF) 10 kHz
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data (Information) can be analog or digital. The term

analog data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete
states.

Analog data take on continuous values.

Digital data take on discrete values.

 Data can be analog or digital.
Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.
 Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range; digital signals can
have only a limited
number of values.
Figure Comparison of analog and digital signals
In communication systems, we commonly
use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.
 Analog Modulation
• The purpose of a communication system is to transmit
information signals (baseband signals) through a
communication channel
• The term baseband is used to designate the band of
frequencies representing the original signal as delivered by
the input transducer
– For example, the voice signal from a microphone is a
baseband signal, and contains frequencies in the range of
0-3000 Hz
– The “hello” wave is a baseband signal:
• Since this baseband signal must be transmitted through a communication
channel such as air using electromagnetic waves, an appropriate procedure is
needed to shift the range of baseband frequencies to other frequency ranges
suitable for transmission, and a corresponding shift back to the original
frequency range after reception. This is called the process of modulation and
demodulation

AM radio FM radio/TV
•Since this baseband signal must be transmitted through a communication
channel such as air using electromagnetic waves, an appropriate procedure is
needed to shift the range of baseband frequencies to other frequency ranges
suitable for transmission, and a corresponding shift back to the original frequency
range after reception. This is called the process of modulation and demodulation

•Since the baseband signal contains frequencies in the audio frequency range (3
kHz), some form of frequency-band shifting must be employed for the radio
system to operate satisfactorily
•This process is accomplished by a device called a modulator
• The transmitter block in any communications system contains the
modulator device
• The receiver block in any communications system contains the
demodulator device
• The modulator modulates a carrier wave (the electromagnetic wave)
which has a frequency that is selected from an appropriate band in the
radio spectrum
– For example, the frequency of a carrier wave for FM can be chosen
from the VHF band of the radio spectrum
– For AM, the frequency of the carrier wave may be chosen to be
around a few hundred kHz (from the MF band of the radio
spectrum)
• The demodulator extracts the original baseband signal from the
received modulated signal
To Summarize:
• Modulation is the process of impressing a low-frequency information
signal (baseband signal )onto a higher frequency carrier signal
• Modulation is done to bring information signals up to the Radio
Frequency (or higher) signal
 Types of Analog Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Amplitude modulation is the process of varying the amplitude of a

carrier wave in proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal.

The frequency of the carrier remains constant
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a

carrier wave in proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal.

The amplitude of the carrier remains constant
 Phase Modulation (PM)
 Another form of analog modulation technique which we will not

discuss
 INTRODUCTION
A digital signal is superior to an analog signal
because it is more robust to noise and can
easily be recovered, corrected and amplified.
For this reason, the tendency today is to
change an analog signal to digital data.
The process of transmitting signals in the
form of pulses (discontinuous signals) by
using special techniques.

329
 PULSE MODULATION

Analog Pulse Modulation Digital Pulse Modulation

Pulse Amplitude (PAM) Pulse Code (PCM)

Pulse Width (PWM) Delta Modulation(DM)

Pulse Position (PPM)

330
 Sampling

 The process of transmitting signals in the

form of pulses (discontinuous signals) by
using special techniques.
 The signal is sampled at regular intervals
such that each sample is propotional to the
amplitude of signal at that instant.This
technique is called “sampling”.
 Sampling is common in all pulse
modulation techniques.

331
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
• In PAM,amplitude of pulses is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of
modulating signal.

332
 Pulse Width Modulation
• In this type, the amplitude is maintained
constant but the width of each pulse is
varied in accordance with instantaneous
value of the analog signal.

333
Pulse Width Modulation

Fig:
334
 Pulse Position Modulation
• In this type, the sampled waveform has
fixed amplitude and width whereas the
position of each pulse is varied as per
instantaneous value of the analog signal.
• PPM signal is further modification of a
PWM signal.

335
Pulse Position Modulation

336
 AM TRANSMITTERS

Antenna
Stabilized RF Class C RF
Class A RF High Level
power
crystal oscillator amplifier Modulator
amplifier

Audio Class B AF
AF modulating Class A AF
processing & power
signal amplifier
filtering amplifier
 HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS

• Many of the AM transmitters use the high

level modulation technique.

• The crystal oscillator produces the required

carrier signal. The class A amplifier following
the oscillator acts as a buffer which isolates
the oscillator from the high power circuit.
 HIGH LEVEL MODULATION TRANSMITTERS

• The output of this class A amplifier is applied

to a class C power amplifier. It raises the
power level of the carrier to an intermediately
high value.
• The AF modulating signal is applied to the
audio processing unit which processes this
signal as discussed in the previous section.
BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR AM RECEIVER
1. Signal received at antenna is very low, need to amplify (LNA) and
tuned to desired freq. to avoid interference.

2. Detector finds the info signal from the rf signal.

3. Further amplification needed to give it enough power to drive a

loudspeaker.

Parameters used to evaluate the ability of a receiver to successfully

demodulate radio signal :-
Selectivity
Sensitivity
Bandwidth Improvement Factor
Dynamic Range
Fidelity
Insertion Loss
FM TRANSMITTER

The microphone converts sound pressure wave to electrical signals.

These audio voltages are amplified by the audio amplifier.
The amplified audio is used to control the deviation of the frequency controlled
oscillator.
The oscillator frequency is at the carrier frequency, in the 88-108 MHz FM
band.
The filter is used to get the desired range of frequency where the message is
present.

The low power of the frequency modulated carrier is boosted by the Radio
Frequency amplifier.

The aerial is driven by the amplifier and produces an electromagnetic wave.

Under normal conditions the transmitted signal will travel as far as the
horizon.
FM RECEIVER
Front end amplifier and tuning block: Signals enter the front end circuitry from the
antenna. This circuit block performs two main functions:

Tuning: Broadband tuning is applied to the RF stage. The purpose of this is to

reject the signals on the image frequency and accept those on the wanted
frequency
Amplification: In terms of amplification, the level is carefully chosen so that it does
not overload the mixer when strong signals are present, but enables the signals to
be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good signal to noise ratio is achieved.

Mixer / frequency translator block: The tuned and amplified signal then enters one
port of the mixer. The local oscillator signal enters the other port. The performance
of the mixer is crucial to many elements of the overall receiver performance.
Local oscillator: The local oscillator may consist of a variable frequency oscillator
that can be tuned by altering the setting on a variable capacitor.

Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block : Once the signals leave the mixer they
enter the IF stages. These stages contain most of the amplification in the receiver
as well as the filtering that enables signals on one frequency to be separated from
those on the next.

Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have passed through the IF
stages of the superheterodyne receiver, they need to be demodulated.

Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is
passed into the audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the
headphones or loudspeaker
 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Basics: How do Satellites Work
• Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through radio
broadcast but are too far away to use conventional means.
• The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for their
communication
• One Earth Station sends a transmission to the satellite. This
is called a Uplink.
• The satellite Transponder converts the signal and sends it
down to the second earth station. This is called a Downlink.
 Basics: Advantages of Satellites
• The advantages of satellite communication
over terrestrial communication are:
 The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds
that of a terrestrial system.
 Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of
the distance from the center of the coverage area.
 Satellite to Satellite communication is very
precise.
 Higher Bandwidths are available for use.
Basics: Disadvantages of Satellites
• The disadvantages of satellite communication:
 Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
 Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used
up.
 There is a larger propagation delay in satellite
communication than in terrestrial communication.
 Basics: How Satellites are used
• Service Types
 Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)
• Example: Point to Point Communication
 Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
• Example: Satellite Television/Radio
• Also called Direct Broadcast Service (DBS).
 Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)
• Example: Satellite Phones
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF LINK SYSTEMS
DESCRIPTION:

The transmitted path form an earth station to the satellite is referred to as ‘uplink’
and the transmitted path from the satellite to an earth station as ‘downlink’.

The on-board repeater may contain one or more transponders (a transponder is

a single on-board RF channel).

There are two types of transponders: transparent (amplifying) and regenerative

types.
There are two types of transponders: transparent (amplifying) and regenerative
types.
Transparent transponders
A simplified block diagram of a conventional transparent (amplifying) transponder
is shown.

It consists of three main components – low-noise

amplifier (LNA), frequency converter and high power amplifier (HPA) with relevant
filtering.
In these transponders, the uplink noise and interference are amplified at the
transponders and transmitted to the receiving earth station.
Consequently, the uplink and downlink noise and interference are added at the
earth station receiver.
Regenerative transponders
A regenerative transponder is a complete transreceiver including a demodulator
and modulator as shown.
The uplink signal is down-converted to IF and then demodulated to baseband.

The individual pulses are detected and reshaped. These pulses are then
remodulated into a downlink carrier, up-converted and amplified before
retransmission to the receiving earth station.

In a regenerative satellite the up-and down-links are decoupled and hence the
noise and interference of two links do not add. As a result, each link can be
optimised separately.
RADAR COMUNICATION
Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range,
angle, or velocity of objects.

It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles,
weather formations, and terrain.

A radar transmits radio waves or microwaves that reflect from any object in their
path.

A receive radar, which is typically the same system as the transmit radar, receives
and processes these reflected waves to determine properties of the object(s).
Radar signal

A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar
signals in predetermined directions.

When these come into contact with an object they are usually reflected or
scattered in many directions.

Radar signals are reflected especially well by materials of considerable

electrical conductivity—especially by most metals, by seawater and by
wet ground.

Some of these make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar
signals that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable
ones that make radar work.

If the object is moving either toward or away from the transmitter, there is
a slight equivalent change in the frequency of the radio waves, caused by
the Doppler effect.
Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the
transmitter.

Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving antenna are usually
very weak, they can be strengthened by electronic amplifiers.

The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is
what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively long ranges—ranges at
which other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and
ultraviolet light, are too strongly attenuated.

Certain radio frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by water vapor,

raindrops, or atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing
radars, except when their detection is intended.
Radar equation

The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the equation:

where
Pt = transmitter power
Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna;
Gr = gain of receiving antenna
σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target
F = pattern propagation factor
Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target
Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.
Antenna design

Radio signals broadcast from a single antenna will spread out in all directions, and
likewise a single antenna will receive signals equally from all directions.

This leaves the radar with the problem of deciding where the target object is
located.

Early systems tended to use omnidirectional broadcast antennas, with directional

receiver antennas which were pointed in various directions.

For instance, the first system to be deployed, Chain Home, used two straight
antennas at right angles for reception, each on a different display.
The maximum return would be detected with an antenna at right angles to the
target, and a minimum with the antenna pointed directly at it (end on).

The operator could determine the direction to a target by rotating the antenna so
one display showed a maximum while the other showed a minimum.

One serious limitation with this type of solution is that the broadcast is sent out in
all directions, so the amount of energy in the direction being examined is a small
part of that transmitted.

To get a reasonable amount of power on the "target", the transmitting aerial

should also be directional
Transmission Direction

- simplex: One direction only

 Half Duplex Transmission

half duplex: Both

directions but
only one
direction at a
time
 Full Duplex Transmission

full duplex:
send and
receive both
directions at
once
 REFERENCES
• Muthusubramanian and salivahanan, Basics of
Electrical and Electronics engineering.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/satellite
• www.slideshare.net/sasankchaitanya/
satellite-communication
• NPTEL Video and IIT Lecture
• http://www.slideshare.net/kumar_vic/ibm-
semiconductor-physicsu-5
• http://www.slideshare.net/
poojithchowdhary/pn-junction-diode
• http://www.slideshare.net/firozamin/
3bipolar-junction-transistor-bjt
• http://www.slideshare.net/rajgill007/jfet-
15228556
• http://www.daenotes.com/electronics/digital-
electronics/clipper-circuits