Classical Theory of Electrical conduction

and Conducting Materials

Unit-1

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Free Electron Theory
Physical Constants

Resistivity, TCR (Temperature Coefficient of

Resistivity)

l ℓ is length
A is Area
ρ is Resistivity
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Matthiessen’s Rule
For pure metals, resistivity is equals to
ρr = Residual part, ρt=Temp
part

For most metals & alloys, the ρ proportional to Temp

T and can be written as

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Classification of Metals Insulators & Semiconductor (Traditional)

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1. Electrical Resistivity ρ:
• Metals: 10-8 Ω.m 10-6 Ω.m
• Insulator: 108 Ω.m 1016 Ω.m
• Semiconductor: 10-2 Ω.m 108 Ω.m
• For pure metals(99.9%): 10-8 Ω.m 10-7 Ω.m
2. TCR for various pure metals is ⁓ 0.004/K
3. Alloying in metals reduces TCR but increases the
resistivity
4. TCR is +ve for pure metals

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Non-metals have much higher resistivity. Here purity
doesn’t have much effect on the resistivity.
Typical semiconductor have a high and negative
TCR.

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Electrical resistance measurement methods
Two point or Four Point method. (R=V/I)

Its easier measure resistance for metals not for

insulator due to no. of factors including defects,
environmental conditions.

High voltage is required for insulator.

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Drude’s Free Electron Theory
Paul. K. Drude is developed a theory of conduction in
1900.

In this model, the electron is considered as particle and

that move freely in lattice.

It obey Newton’s law of motion & Maxwell-

Boltzmann statistics.

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When an electrical field E is applied to a metal, the
force acting on an electron is

According to Newton’s Law the acceleration of

electron particle is

Where m is mass of electron(9.11 x10-31 Kg)

e is electron charge (1.6 x10-19 C)

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In time τ, the electron will obtain the velocity (Vd)

Here Vd is drift velocity.

From acceleration of electron particle,

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μ is called mobility of electron

The total charge crossing unit area in unit time is

Current density J

Here drift velocity Vd is

Or in terms of current density σ is (Unit Ω-1 m-1)

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The resistance R is

Quick Exercise: Derive Ohm’s law from current

density & Electric field E

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Ohm’s law from Current Density

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Mean Free Path
The average distance travelled by an electron between
collisions is

Where
τ is the time between two collisions and
ν is the average velocity of electron (νth + νd).
Because νth >> νd (under equilibrium condition without
applied field)

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τ can be found from

 Than mean free path length,

The average time(for metal) between two collisions τ

is ranging from 10-14 to 10-15 s.
Electron concentration n is 1028 /m3.

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Example Prob-1

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Cu Atomic structure

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Hall Effect
Edwin H. Hall conducted following Hall effect
experiment in 1879.

Electrons in motion in a magnetic field are subjected

to Lorentz force, (F is upward direction)
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Hall field EH is accumulated in F direction.

EH acts on electron as to oppose the Lorentz force.

The magnitude of opposing force is equal.

Here ν x B equals to ν.B since ν & B are perpendicular

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The instantaneous velocity ν = νth + νd=>νd(since
thermal velocity νth is zero: random direction)

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RHne values for some metals

Some metals(alkali metals)

obey Rhne=-1
Some metals will be Rhne
>1 (Stating that not only
free electrons responsible
but also charges lik
electrons & holes)

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Hall Probe Experiments
Hall probe is used to measure
unknown magnetic field EH & type
of charge carrier (by the direction
EH or VH).
Hall field is proportional to
mobility μ of charge carrier.

Hence material with high μ is used

as Hall probe. (For e.g., InSb,
mobility is typically 8000 cm2/V.s ,
is used which is greater 2000 times
of Cu mobility)

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Wiedemann-Franz Law
Good electrical conductors = Good thermal conductors

Assume only electrons responsible for both electrical

and thermal conduction in metal.

Free electron behave like an ideal gas.

At constant temp T,

=constant (called W-F Law)

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For ideal gas thermal conductivity can be treated as

the kinetic energy of a single atom of a monatomic gas at

thermodynamic temperature T is given by 3/2 KBT.
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Using

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L is Lorentz number, can be measured using
experiment.

Some alloys L has greater than 2.23 x10-8 WΩ/K2

because of low electrical conductivity. (And also in
reality the heat is not only conducted by electrons but
also by lattice vibration)

Non-metals have different conducting mechanism so it

does not follow Wiedemann-Franz Law.

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Nordheim Rule
Resistivity of Alloy
The electrical resistivity = Residual part (ρr)+ Thermal
part (ρt).
The residual resistivity increases with impurity with
following relation.

Nordheim Rule

Here x, atomic fraction of impurity

A is Solution resistivity coefficient which is depends on
base metal & the impurity.
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 Residual Resistivity of Tin(Sn)-(Indium) In
Alloy

Linear increase in ρ with x

caused by ρ(r) residual resistvity,

Here thermal resistivity

ρ(th) is constant

The total resistivity is

Material factors such as atomic sizes, crystal structure, electro negatives affects 40
residual resistivity coefficient(A)
When the small fraction of impurity added x <<1 that
implies to

The residual resistivity of Sn-In alloy 41

The effect of small fraction of impurity
 Effect of addition of various
elements(impurity) on Copper(Cu)

 Linear increase of residual

resistivity(ρr) with impurity
concentration x.

 Thermal resistivity is remain

constant (ρt).

 Hence the total resistivity is

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 Small fraction of impurity on Cu
Small fraction of impurity of silver(Ag) on Copper
(Cu) does not influence much on residual
resistivity of Cu because lattice structure
similarities

But addition phosphorous (P) has

strongest effect.
(Here mechanical strength is increased)

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Resistivity Ratio

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The Resistivity ratio at room temperature and 4K
Purity of metal with Resistivity Ratio (Rr)
Note:

The Resistivity Ratio Rr =(ρr+ρt)/ ρr

High purity
is very high for pure metals since ρr is
small

Special techniques such as,

Normal purity • Zone refining,
• Vacuum degassing
are used to obtain high resistivity ratio
up to 1,00,000
The normally available commercial
purity in the range of 1~100

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Resistivity from strain damage

Aluminium (Al) Two

Alloy

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Resistivity from strain damage
Cold work (mechanical deformation) increases the
resistivity
The increase arises from the dislocation and other
structural defects
Theses defects reduces mean free path and increases
resistivity
Radiation also influences structural defects especially
in space satellites nuclear reactor

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Resistivity from strain damage( Contd..)
Annealing (heating) is used to remove most of
structural defects and restore to orginal resistivity

Annealing also reduce lattice distortion and improve

ductility.

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 Aluminium (Al) Two
Alloy

Factors affecting resistivity a) Cold work of Al, Al(1100) is commercially pure and
Al(3003) is Al contains 1.2 % Mg
b)The resistivity is a sum of the contribution from temperature, alloying elements,
and deformation
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Resistivity of Alloy and Multiphase Solids
Binary alloy systems can be three forms,
1. Solid Solution
2. Multiphase Mixture
3. Intermetallic Compounds

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1. Solid Solution (Hume-Rothery Criteria)
Two metals similar crystal structure
Atomic Volume difference of each metal <=15%
Same valence electrons
Similar electrochemical properties
For E,g

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Solid solution alloy
Nordheim’s rule can be used for parabolic curve for
each component up to 50%

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 TAFor E.g Ni
Melting Point
1,455 °C
TBFor E.g C
Melting Poin
1,085 °C

Note: Maximum
position of resistivity
need not to be average
in middle TCR usually
decreases as
Resistivity increases

ρ BFor E.g Cu
Resistivity
ρAFor E.g Ni 1.68x10-8
Resistivity 7x10-
8
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Multiphase Mixture- Two phase
 Two phase mixture alloy-Complicated and assume alloy
randomly distributed (α and β phase). Vα & V β are
volume fractions.

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The electrical resistivity of a two phase material is a
linear function of the two phases

If the densities of the two phases are similar, mass

(weight ) fraction can be used

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 Binary eutectic alloy system

Eutectic
- A mixture of substances having a melting point lower
than that of any of its components

Figure: The Resistivity as a function of

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composition in binary eutectic alloy system
3.Intermetallic Compounds
Electro negatives(is a measure of the tendency of an
atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons)
Equal electronegativity (electrons in average half
way )

 B is slightly more electronegative than A

Intermetallic compounds formed when electronegative

of the components are different
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E.g., of intermetallic components are Fe-Al, Ni-Fe,
Zn-Mg etc..

Resistivity and TCR completely may vary in

complicated way in intermetallic components

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Electro negativity of Fe & Al

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 Temperature
Resistivity ρ Conductivity σ
Material coefficient α
(ohm m) x10-8 x 107 /Ωm
per degree C

Iron 9.71 0.005 1.03

Aluminum 2.65 0.0039 3.77

Nichrome
100 0.0004 0.10
(Ni,Fe,Cr alloy)

Ni 6.99 0.006 1.43

Zinc 5.90 0.0037 1.69

Manganese 1.44×10−6 6.94×105

Copper 1.68 0.00404 5.96

Gold 2.44 0.0034 4.1

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Silver 1.59 0.0038 6.30
Resistivity of intermetallic compounds

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Material for Electrical Transmission
Material used for
electrical
conduction

Electricity transmission Resistor and heating

elements

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Requirement for electricity transmission
Used in high voltage transmission lines, transformer
winding, apparatus and devices
Requirements
1. Lowest possible resistivity
2. Low TCR
3. Adequate mechanical properties(Mainly tensile
strength and good flexibility)
4. Roll to Roll manufacturing process
5. Good solderability and weldability
6. Adequate corrosion resistance
7. Reasonable cost
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Typical electricity transmission materials
Copper
Most extensively used and conductivity
σ =6.0 x 10-7/Ω.m at 99.9-99.99% purity (by
electrolytic refining). Ductility Wires of all sizes are
possible, solderability and weldability

Cu is strong enough when its pure.So pure Cu for

wielding wires.
High tensile load application, Cu with Zn, Ni, Al, Cd,
Pd, P, Fe, Be, Fn etc alloy used.

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Relative strength and conductivity of Cu
alloys

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 Copper Alloy category
Cu Alloy

Bronze based (Cu- Brass( Cu-Zn)

Cd, Cu-Be)

• Cu-Be(Cu-0.6-2% Be) • Cu-Zn(Cu-5-40% Zn)

• When Zn 40% α phase β phase
• Bronze have high tensile strength
• Formability and weldability.
• Hardness, Can be heat treated and • Cu-with > 40% of Zn is cheaper
cold-worked
• Appln: Contact wires, springs
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