Electronics & Electrical

Engineering

PART 1: Electrical Engineering

2023 for BET
Contact details
• Dr inż. Marek Ossowski
• marek.ossowski@p.lodz.pl
• Division of Nonlinear Circuits & Sysytems
– Zakład Układów i Sysytemów Nieliniowych
• Institute of Electrical Engineering Systems
– Instytut Systemów Inżynierii Elektrycznej
• Al.Politechniki 11 pok.14 Ip (C3)
• Tel.(42) 6312515

• Tel 501673231 only on important

things!!!!
http://matel.p.lodz.pl/wee/i12zet/mosso/mosso_index.html
 Learning outcomes
• Perform DC analysis and AC analysis in the
frequency domain, compute and measure
different powers in AC circuits (Lab,Tut,Ex).
• Perform transient analysis of first order
circuits (Lab,Tut,Ex).
 LECTURES
• Electric circuits, elements and models.
• The Kirchhoff voltage and current laws.
• Linear and nonlinear resistors.
• Simple resistive circuits.
• DC operating points.
• Superposition theorem.
• The Thevenin-Norton theorem.
• Node analysis of resistive circuits.
• Capacitors and inductors, memory, continuity property.
• First order dynamic circuits, transient analysis.
• Sinusoidal steady-state analysis, phasor concept.
• Power and energy.
• Resonant circuits.
• Three-phase systems
 TUTORIALS
• Simple resistive circuits.
• The superposition theorem.
• Applications of the Thevenin - Norton theorem.
• Node method.
• Capacitors and inductors.
• Transient analysis of RL and RC circuits.
• AC analysis of sinusoidal circuits using the
phasor concept.
• Calculation of power in sinusoidal steady-state.
 LABORATORIES
• Introduction. Basis of PSPICE CAD*
• The measurements of voltage, current and
resistance.*
• Verification of basic laws and principles of
circuit theory.* (measurements and SPICE
simulations)
• Resonant circuits.
• First order dynamic circuits.
• Three-phase systems. * (mesurements and
SPICE simulations)
 Reference materials
• Tadeusiewicz M., Electric circuits,
textbook, International Faculty of
Engineering, Łódź 2009
• Tadeusiewicz M., Electiric circuits.
Tutorials problem, IFE, Łódź 2010.
• Other reference materials
• Chua L.O., Desoer C.A., Kuh E.S.,
Linear and nonlinear circuits, McGraw
Hill, 1987.
1. Dorf R.C., Svoboda J.A. : Introduction to
electric circuits, J. Wiley, 2018.
 How to pass the subject?
• Electrical Enineering part:
– tests - 8%,
– laboratory experiments - 7%,
– written examinations - 35%
– ATTENDANCE!
Lecture 1&2
Circuits variables and elements.
Kirchhoff’s Laws, Tellegen’s Theorem
• Introduction
– Briefly about history of electricity
• Current, voltage, circuit
– the basic structure of an atom
– the concept of electrical charge
– definitions of voltage, current, resistance
– electric circuit
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Circuit elements
– Passive and active circuit elements
 Wiliam Gilbert

 The
Thehistory
historyof ofelectricity
electricitybegins
beginswithwithWilliam
William
Gilbert,
Gilbert aaphysician
Gilbert
Gilbert, physicianwho whoserved
servedQueen
QueenElizabeth
Elizabeth
(before,
(before,all
allthat
thatwas
wasknown
knownaboutaboutelectricity
electricityand
and
magnetism
magnetismwas wasthat
thatthe
thelodestone
lodestonepossessed
possessed
magnetic
magneticproperties
propertiesandandthat
thatrubbing
rubbingamber
amberand andjet
jet
would
wouldattract
attractbits
bitsofofstuff
stufftotostart
startsticking).
sticking).
 InIn1600,
1600,William
WilliamGilbert
Gilbertpublished
publishedhis histreatise
treatise"De
"De
magnete,
magnete,Magneticisique
MagneticisiqueCorporibus
Corporibusetetde de
Magno
MagnoMagnete
MagneteTellure
Tellure" "(On(Onthe
theLoadstone
Loadstoneand and
Magnetic
MagneticBodies
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andon onthetheGreat
GreatMagnet
Magnetthe theEarth
Earth
, ,„O
„Omagnesie,
magnesie,ciałach
ciałachmagnetycznych
magnetycznychi ioo
wielkim
wielkimmagnesie
magnesieziemskim”).
ziemskim”
ziemskim”).
ziemskim”
 Gilbert
Gilbertcoined
coinedthetheexpression
expression"electrica"
"electrica"ininhis
hisbook
book. .
 Inspired and educated by William Gilbert, several
Inspired and educated by William Gilbert, several
Europeans
Europeansand
andAmerican
Americaninventors,
inventors,expanded
expandedthethe
knowledge:
knowledge:
13
– Otto von Guericke,
– Charles Francois Du Fay
– Stephen Gray
– Benjamin Franklin
– Henry Cavendish (started measuring the conductivity)
– Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
– Luigi Galvani
– Alessandro Volta ,
– Hans Oersted ,
– Andre Ampere ,
– Georg Ohm,
– Michael Faraday
– Joseph Henry
– James Clerk Maxwell ……..
• A new entity in nature that we call a charge was uncovered in
ancient experiments (fundamental as already encountered:
mass, length, time)
• Through a series of experiments, scientists uncovered the fact
that there would be a force of attraction for unlike charges
and a force of repulsion for like charges.

Electric charge definition

The
The feature
feature of
of elementary
elementary particle
particle
which
which causes
causes that
that the
the particles
particles are
are
subjects
subjects to
to electromagnetic
electromagnetic
operations.
operations.
• Remarks
Charges of particles and systems of
particles are elementary charge multiple:

q  e  1.602 10 C
el
19

• Mass of the electron

me  9.107 10 kg 31

1C=1[Q]
1C=1[Q]TheThecharge
chargeunit
unitisis11Coulomb
Coulomb––ititisis
the
thecharge
chargewhich
whichisiscarried
carriedduring
during11second
second
through
throughthe
thegiven
givencross-section
cross-sectionof ofthe
thewire
wire
leading
leadingthe
theDC
DCcurrent
currentof
of11Amper.
Amper. 16
First experiments in electricity
Charles August Coulomb
(F) 1736-1806

+
+
-
WdWI 2015 PŁ 17
The very first measurement in
electromagnetism
Charles August Coulomb
(F) 1736-1806
On
Onthe
thebasis
basisof
ofmeasurements
measurements
Coulomb
Coulombcalculated
calculatedthe
the magnitude
magnitudeof
of
the
theelectric
electricforces
forcesacting
actingbetween
between
charges
charges
Torsion
Torsionbalance
balanceinstrument
instrument
q1  q2
F  k  2 1r 18
r
Atomic Structure Niels Bohr model
• An atom is the smallest particle of
an element that retains the
characteristics of that element
8e
• A nucleus consists of positively
charged particles (protons), and
uncharged particles called neutrons 0e

• The basic particles of negative Nucleus 2e 1e

charge, called electrons, orbit the

nucleus (number of electrons =
number of protons  atom is
neutral) n=1
• Orbits are grouped onto a fixed
number of energy bands known as n=2 n=3 n=4
shells
• Each shell has a fixed maximum
number of electrons (2N^2)
permissible at energy levels (orbits)
19
Valence electrons
Electrons with the highest
energy exist in the outermost
shell, (valence shell), and are
called valence electrons 8e

• If a valence electron acquires 0e

enough external energy to Nucleus 2e 1e
leave the atom, the process is
known as ionization and
escaped electron is called a
free electron n=1

• Category of material (electrcal n=2 n=3 n=4

conductivity ) depends on a
number of valence elrctrons

20
 Material categories
• Insulators are characterized by more than
4 valence electrons in an atomic structure
• Conductors readily permit current flow,
due to a large number of free electrons in
the material
– Conductors are characterized by 1, 2, or 3
valence electrons in their atomic structure
• Semiconductors  4 valence electrons
Free electrons are moving in the material in a chaotic manner.

A physical phenomena consisting on orderly movement of

particles carrying electric charge is called electric
current.
Direction
Directionofof Direction
Directionofof
electrons
electronsflow current
flow currenti i

Nucleus

-- ++

22
 Electric current definitions
a) An orderly movement of particles carrying
electric charge

b) Scalar quantity beeing the ratio of elementary

charge dq that passes through the plane cross-
sectional surface in time dt to this time dt.
dq 1C
i( t )  1[i ]  1A 
dt 1s
The unit of current is the ampere; 1 coulomb per second 23
 Electric circuit
An
Anelectric
electriccircuit
circuit(electric
(electricnetwork)
network)isisan
aninterconnection
interconnectionofofelectrical
electrical
elements
elements (devices) linked together by conductive wires in aclosed
(devices) linked together by conductive wires in a closed
path ensuring continous flow of electric current.
path ensuring continous flow of electric current.

An
Anexample
exampleofofelectric
electric
circuit
circuit
Exemplary circuit

v 5(t)
i1(t)
R5 v 2(t) j (t)
2
i5(t)
L4 i4(t)
e 1(t)

v 4 (t)
C3
v 3(t)
i3(t)

i6(t)
v 6(t)
25
 Basic topological definitions
• NODE  the place denoted by dot where
elements endings are connected
• BRANCH  the part of circut between nodes
(contains usually one element with connecting
wires)
• PATH  sequence of branches which connect
a sequence of nodes which are all distinct from
one another.
• LOOP  path with common beginning node
and end node.
• MESH  loop without branches inside

26
• GRAPH  graphical circuit mapping created by
replacing all the elements between nodes by
segments.
– Contains only informations about placement of
elements

• ORIENTED GRAPH  GRAPH containing

additional information about reference
directions of currents and voltages.
• GRAPH  graphical circuit mapping created by
replacing all the elements between nodes by
segments.
– Contains only informations about placement of
elements

• ORIENTED GRAPH  GRAPH containing

additional information about reference
directions of currents and voltages.
 Making a graph
1 1 1

i
v

2 2 2
First graph branch
Circuit element between First
Firstoriented
orientedgraph
graph
(not oriented) branch
nodes 1 and 2 between nodes 1 and 2 branch betweennodes
between nodes
1 and 2
OBWÓD -CIRCUIT GRAPH -
ZORIENTOWANY
GRAF - GRAF

5
2

4
1

6
 CIRCUIT
OBWÓD to- GRAF
- GRAF ORIENTED GRAPH
ZORIENTOWANY

5
2

4
1

6
 Reference direction of current
• The flow of current is traditionally represented as
a flow of positive charges (B.Franklin
convention).
• Uniqe notation of current consider a value and
assignated reference direction.

i1 (t ) i2 (t )
aa bb
 Electric voltage
--
vba (t ) ++

aa bb

++ vab (t ) --

The voltage across an element is the work required to

move unit positive charge from the (-) terminal to the
(+) terminal.
dw 1J
v(t )  1[v]  1V 
dq 1C
The unit of voltage is the volt. A charge of 1 coulomb delivers an energy
of 1 joule as it moves through a voltage of 1 volt. 33
Some other circuit definitions
• Electric device = the physical object that
produces or uses electricity.
– Capacitor, transistor, operational amplifier
(simple devices = circuit elements)
– Motor, alternator, transformer,
• Electric circuit an interconnection of
electrical elements (devices)
• Electric devices are build with basic electric
circuit elements (resistors, sources,
capacitors, inductors)
• What is a model of electric device? 34
 What is a model of circuit element
• It is descrription of those properties of a
device we suppouse are important for
designer, contructor and user.
• Frequently: model consists of an equation
relating to the voltage and current.
• Each device has different models
– Simple is easy to work but not accurate
– More complicated models are used when
necessary
 What is a linear model of circuit
element?
A linear element model is additive and
homogenous.

Assumption of the notation: excitation to

response: i  v
Superposition (additivity) property:
Homogenity:
if
i1  v1
iv
i2  v2
then ki  kv
i1  i2  v1  v2
Reference directions summary:
• We analyse voltages between points (nodes)
and currents flowing through the branches
conecting nodes.
• Because of expected changes of charges flow
direction, it is hard to define actuall direction of
current flow and polarisation of voltage  we
assume some reference (assumed) directions
which together with actual value (with sign)
uniqely define currents and voltages.

37
 Reference directions (conclusion)

i( t )
11 22

v(t )
For a given time point :
it1   1.2 A means that at t1 current having the value1.2A flows from
point 1 to 2.
it 2   7 mA means that at t2 current having the value 7mA flows
from point 2 to 2.
vt3   7V means that at t3 potential of point 2 is 7V higher than
potential of the point 1.
vt 4   12V means that at t4 potential of point 1 is 12V higher than
potential of the point 2.

38
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• For any electric circuit, for any of its
loop, and at any time, the algebraic
sum of the branch voltages around the
loop is equal to zero.

ni

Number of branches
v
k 1
k 0
of i-th loop

39
 v2 t   v4 t   v5 t   0
Example

v 5(t)
i1(t)
R5 u 2(t) j (t)
2
i5(t)
L4 i4(t)
e 1(t)

v5 t   v6 t   e1 t   0
v 4 (t)
C3
v 3(t)
i3(t)

i6(t)
V6 (t)

v2 t   e1 t   v3 t   0
Select
Selectaaloop
loopand
andassume
assumearbitrarily
arbitrarilyits
itsreference
referencedirection,
direction,
clock-wise or counter clock-wise.
clock-wise or counter clock-wise.
Next
Next assignthe
assign theplus
plussign
signtotothe
thebranch
branchvoltages
voltageswhose
whose
reference
reference directions agree with that of the loop and theminus
directions agree with that of the loop and the minus
sign to the others. 40
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
General version
• For any electric circuit, for any
closed node sequence, and for
any time, the algebraic sum of
all node-to-node voltages
around the chosen closed node
sequence is equal to zero.

41
 vv1 vv2
1 2
1 3

vv6 vv25 vv3

6
vv5 25 vv4 3
5 4

6 4
5

Sequence
Sequenceof ofnodes
nodes1-2-5-6
1-2-5-6
KVL:
KVL:-v
-v1-v
-v25+v
+v5+v
+v6=0
=0
1 25 5 6
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• For any electric circuit, for any of its
nodes, and at any time
• the algebraic sum of all the branch
currents meeting at the node is zero.
• Sign rules
• we assign the plus bi
sign to the
currents leaving
the node and the
i
k 1
k 0
minus sign to the
currents entering Number of branches at i-th node
the node
43
 j2 t   i3 t   i4 t   0
v 5(t)
i1(t)
R 5 v (t) j (t)
2
2
i5(t)
L4 i4(t)
e1(t)

 i1 t   i3 t   i6 t   0
v 4(t)
C3
v 3(t)
i3(t)

i6(t)
v 6(t)

i4 t   i5 t   i6 t   0
44
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
General version
• For all circuits, for all gaussian surfaces, for all
times t, the algebraic sum of all currents crossing
the gaussian surface at time t is equal to zero.
• In the algebraic sum we assign the plus sign to the
currents leaving the gaussian surface and the minus
sign to the currents entering the surface.

Number of branches
crossing the gaussian b Si 
surface Si i
k 1
k 0
45
 i2
Example:
i7
i6
i1

i5 i4

is3

gaussian
 i2 t   i1 t   i5 t   is 3 t   0
gaussian
surface
surfacedefined
defined
as a balloon-like
as a balloon-like
closed
closedsurface
surface
46
 Independence of KCL equations
• How many from the all possible KCL
equations are linearly independent.

11 i1  i2  i3  0
22  i1  i2  i4  0
33 i3  i 4  0
Adding
Adding11and
and22equations
equationsand
andmultiplying
multiplyingresult
resultby
by(-1)
(-1)
we
weobtain
obtainthe
thethird
third
Oriented
Orientedgraph
graphofofcurrents For
currents Forany
anygraph
graphwith
withnnnodes
nodes(n-1)
(n-1)KCL
KCL
equations
equations for any of these nodes formaa
for any of these nodes form
set of linearly independent equations.
Independence of KVL equations
• How many from the all possible KVL equations are lineary independent?
• It can be shown that for a circuit having b branches and n nodes b-n+1 linearly independent
equations can be formulated.
• An algorithm: We write KVL equations selecting the loops so that any equation contains at
least one voltage that has not been included in any of the previous equations.
• Illustration:

II v1  v7  v2  0
IIII  v 2  v3  v 4  0

IIIIII v 4  v5  v 6  0

IVIV v 7  v 6  v8  0
Oriented
Orientedgraph
graphofofvoltages
voltages For
Forany
anygraph
graphwith
withnnnodes
nodesand
andbb
branches
branchesKVL
KVLequations
equationsfor
forb-n+1
b-n+1meshes
meshes
 Unique Kirchhoff’s equations
• For any circuit having n nodes and b
branches we formulate:
 n-1 lineary independent KCL equations (for
any n-1 nodes)
 b-n+1 lineary independent KVL equations
(for b-n+1 chosen loops)
 Total number of unique (lineary independent)
Kirchhoff’s equations:

n 1 b  n 1  b
49
 Circuit elements
The components used to build electric circuits

•• Resistors
Resistors
––lin
linear
ear
––nnonlinear
onlinear
•• Independent
Independent sources
sources
––voltage
voltage
––current
current
•• Dependent
Dependent sources
sources
50
 Basic UNITS (SI system)

Voltage 1v   1V
Current 1i   1A
Resistance: 1R   1
Power: 1 p   1W
Energy 1w  1J
51
 Resistance
• RESISTANCE is the physical property of
an element or device that impedes the flow
of current.
• The ability of a material to resist the flow of
charges is call its resistivity ρ.
• Good conductors have low values of resistivity.
• Ohm’s law invented in 1827
 Georg Simon Ohm
1787-1854


"The
"Thegalvanic
galvaniccircuit
circuitinvestigated
investigated
mathematically"
mathematically"(1827)
(1827)
German Minister of Education proclaimed that "a professor
German Minister of Education proclaimed that "a professor
who
whopreached
preachedsuch
suchheresies
heresieswas
wasunworthy
unworthytototeach
teachscience.“
science.“
REMOVED from Unversity of Cologne

U  I R
REMOVED from Unversity of Cologne

Rehabilita
Rehabilitation
tionafter
aftersix
sixyears
years
((because
becauseof
of Kar
KarllGauss
GaussandandWilhelm
Wilhelm
Weber
Weberintercessesion
intercessesion))
53
 Linear resistor 1
v  Ri i  Gv
R
• Equations G
i R i R
• Symbols uv vu

vu
• Units 1R   1 v  Ri

1G   1S
i
54
• Resistance and conductance (G)
calculation

the length

l  l 1
R  
 S S G

conductivity
resistivity

cross-sectional area
55
 Resistivity and conductivity of
conductors
resistivity  conductivity 
Material m mm2/m S/m m/(mm2)

SILVER 1.6210-8 0.0162 62.5106 62.5

COPPER 1.7510-8 0.0175 57 106 57
ALUMINUM 2.8310-8 0.0283 35.3 106 35.3
TIN 1210-8 0.12 8.33 106 8.33
PLATINUM 11.1 10-8 0.111 9 106 9
MANGANITE 44 10-8 0.44 2.3 106 2.3
CONSTANTAN 48 10-8 0.48 2.1 106 2.1
CHROME-NICKEL 110 10-8 1.1 0.91 106 0.91
ZINC 6.3 10-8 0.63 15.9 106 15.9
56
 Some resistor parameters
• Nominal resistance  Expected value of
resistance given with tolerance (tolerance is
the percentage of maximum error in the
resistor's resistance(. 0,1 – 20 %)
• Resistor Power Rating  called the
Resistors Wattage Rating, the amount of heat
that a resistive element can dissipate for an
indefinite period of time without degrading
its performance
• Resistor Nominal Voltage Rating  the
voltage that can be supply the resistor
without changing its properties.

OE1 2015
57
 Types of resistors RESISTORS

WIRE-WOUNDED OTHERS

LINEAR NONLINEAR
LINEAR NONLINEAR

SOLID ADJUSTABLE
ADJUSTABLE SOLID THERMISTOR VARISTOR

POTENTIOMETER DECADE FOTORESISTOR MAGNETORESISTORS

LAMINAR VOLUMETRIC

NONORGANIC ORGANIC

58
 Example: 4K7
Example: 4K7 4700
4700 
(carbon)
(carbon)

• BAND 1: yellow  4..............4

• BAND 2: violet 7...............7
BAND 1, field # • BAND 3: red 2.......00
• BAND 4: gold 5%(tol.) 4700 
BAND 2, field #

BAND 3, factor (how many 0?)

BAND 4, tolerance w %

59
 Example OF VALUE CODE

 FIRST band: yellow = 4

 SECOND band: yellow = 4
 THIRD band: red = 2 ( 102)
 FOURTH band: red = 2%

44 x 102 = 4400 = 4.4 k

60
 Nonlinear resistor basis
• Any resistor whose v-i characteristic is not a
straight line through the origin is classified as a
nonlinear resistor.
• A general symbol:
Nonlinear resistors – static resistance
v v vA
RS    k  tg
i A iA

vA
Proportional to
the tangent of the
secant slope


iA i 62
v Dynamic resistance

RD  lim
v dv
  k  tg
i 0 i di A

i
vA v
Proportional to
the tangent of
tangential line
slope

iA i 63
Examples of nonlinear resistors
i
v

i
thermistor Tunnel diode

i
 
i  K e v  1

Bulb
Bulbwith
withwolfram
wolfram
filament
filament diode
64
Independent sources

Voltage source

65
• An element is called a (ideal) voltage source
if it maintains a prescribed voltage between
its terminals for any current flowing through
the source.
• a voltage source maintains a prescribed
voltage between its terminals in an arbitrary
circuit to which it is connected.
• Symbols:

vS t  u s , Vs , E

66
v-i characteristic of independent voltage sources
v
vs t1 

vs , Vs , E
0
i
vs t 2 

67
 Real voltage source
Symbols: ++

vs t  vS , VS , E
--

RS , RIN RS , RIN

OE1 2015
68
Real voltage source terminated by a load

us i

LOAD
v
v RS RS

v  vS  RS  i
69
 Voltage-current characteristic of real voltage
v source

vS
v  vS  RS  i
Load
Loadline
line
Open
circuit state
vS
RS
0
i
Short-circuit
state

70
 Open circuit Short-circuit

vS
i0 vS
v0
vS
i
v  vS RS

RS
RS

71
 Current sources
• A current source is an element which
maintains a prescribed current iS(t) for
any voltage v(t) between its terminals.
• A current source maintains a prescribed
current in an arbitrary circuit to which it is
connected
• Symbols: DC:
iS t , jS t  v(t ) iS , jS , I , I S ,.....

72
 u
v-i characteristics of the ideal current sources

iS , J S ,

0 I S ,...

iS t1  iS t 2  i

73
 Real current source models
i
i

iS RS v iS RS v

ii00,,vviiSSRRSS

74
 Short-circuiti state

iS RS v ii  iiSS

vv  00,, ii  iiSS
75
 iR 
v
RS
i

iS RS v LOAD

vv
ii iiSS 
RRSS

76
Load line of real current source
i
iS 1
i  iS  v
RS
Short
circuit

0 RS iS
v
Open
circuit
77
 Equivalence of sources
• multiply both sides of
equation: 1
i  iS  v
RS
• by RS and rearrange this equation as

v  RS iS  RS i  vS  RS i
vS
• which scribes a real voltage source.
• Thus, if vS=RsiS, then the real current source
and the real voltage source are equivalent.
 Tellegen’s theorem
• Let
i1 , i2 ,  , ib 
be any set of branch currents satisfying
KCL at any node and let
v1 , v2 ,  , vb 
be any set of branch voltages satisfying KVL
at any loop. Then it holds b
 v k ik  0
k 1
• the set of branch currents and the set of
branch voltages are associated with the
given graph but not necessarily with the
same circuit.

An
Anexemplary
exemplarygraph
graphhaving
having
three
threenodes
nodesand
andfour
fourbranches
branches
 Two
Two circuits
circuitshaving
, the
having same graph:
, the same graph:
~ ~ ~ ~
v~1 i1  v~2 i 2  v~3 i 3  v~4 i 4  0
~ ~ ~ ~
v1 i1  v2 i 2  v3 i 3  v4 i 4  0

v~1i1  v~2i2  v~3i3  v~4i4  0

v1i1  v2i2  v3i3  v4i4  0

 Power and energy

• The instantaneous power entering the one-port is equal

to the product of the port voltage and port current

pt   vt i t 
• The energy delivered to the one-port from
time t0 to t is given by the equation
t t
wt 0 , t    p   d    v   i   d 
t0 t0

ititholds
holds

dw
 pt 
dt
For linear resistors pecified by R or G :

pt   vt i t   Ri t 
2

pt   vt i t   Gv t 
2

• the instantaneous power is, in this case,

nonnegative for all t.
 Passive and active elements

Passive element dissipates energu whereas

active element delivers

t
w(t )   u ( ) i ( ) d 0 passive

t
w(t )   u ( ) i ( ) d 0 active


85
 Simple linear resistive circuits

• Circuits consisting of resistors and

sources are classified as resistive circuits.
• The analysis of such a class of circuits
supplied with DC is called DC analysis.
Two resistors connected in series

v  v1  v 2  R1i  R2 i  R1  R2 i

v
 R1  R2
i
R  R1  R2
v
R
i
 Voltage divider

• Voltages across the resistors are specified by

the equations:

R1 R2
v1  R1i  v v 2  R2 i  v
R1  R2 R1  R2
 v1  R1i
v1 R1

v 2 R2
v2  R2i

• This relation states that the series connection

of R1 and R2 resistors and can be considered
as a voltage divider.
• The voltage v is divided in proportion to and
R1 and R2.
The series connection of n linear
resistors

R  R1    Rn
n
R   Rk
k 1
 The circuit consisting of two linear
resistors connected in parallel

• Voltages across resistors and are

identical and equal to v.
 i  i1  i2

v v
i1  i2 
R1 R2

 1 1  1
i     v i v
 R1 R2  R
two
tworesistors
resistorsconnected
connectedininparallel
parallel 1R1 R2
are
are equivalent to the resistorRRspecified
equivalent to the resistor specifiedby:
by: R 
1 1 R1  R2

R1 R2
 Current divider
R1 R2
v  iR  i
R1  R2

v R2
i1  i
R1 R1  R2

v R1
i2  
R2 R1  R2
the i1 R2
theparallel
parallelconnection
connectionofoftwo
tworesistors
resistorsand
andcancanbebeconsidered
considered 
asasa acurrent
currentdivider,
divider,where
wherethe
thecurrents
currentsare
aredivided
dividedaccording
accordingtoto
equation
i2 R1
equation: :
The parallel connection of n linear
resistors

1 1 1 1
   G  G1  G2   Gn
R R1 R2 Rn

n n
1 1
 G   Gk
R k 1 Rk k 1

Conductance:
Conductance:1[G]=1S
1[G]=1S
 A potentiometer.

wipper
wipper

• A three-terminal resistor.
• Terminal 3 (a wiper), can be shifted
along the resistor , dividing Rp it into
Rx and Ry.
 Potentiometer scheme
1 1
i i

v R R X
X

3 3
RP v R P

R vy R
Ry
vy R 0
y

2 2

96
the
theresistance
resistancefaced
facedby
bythe
thevoltage
voltagesource
sourceisis
Ry R
RS  Rx 
Ry  R

v
i
Ry R
Rx 
Ry  R

Ry R Ry R
vy  i  v
Ry  R 
Rx R y  R  R y R 
 Resistive circuits

Superposition theorem and its

application
 Consider a linear circuit driven by n voltage
sources and m current sources

vS1 , vS 2 ,  , vS n iS1 , iS 2 ,  , iS m

The superposition theorem states that any

branch current and any branch voltage in this
circuit is given by the expression of the form

h1vS1  h2 vS 2    hn vS n  k1iS1  k 2iS 2    k miS m

k j  j  1,  , m 
where coefficients

h j  j  1,  , n 
where coefficients

are constants and depend only on circuit parameters.

are constants and depend only on circuit parameters.

Any
Anybranch
branchcurrent
currentandandany
anybranch
branchvoltage
voltageisisaalinear
linear
combination
combinationofofthe
thevoltage
voltageand
andcurrent
currentsources.
sources.
 Example 1
• A circuit consisting of linear resistors, a
single voltage source and a single current
source.
• We extract from this circuit the sources
and an arbitrary resistor. i=?
• From superposition theorem
~ ~ ~
i  hvS  kiS  i  i

The
Theresponse
responseofofthethecircuit
circuitdue
duetotoseveral
severalvoltage
voltageand
andcurrent
currentsources
sourcesisis
equal
equaltotothe
thesum
sumofofthe
theresponses
responsesdueduetotoeach
eachsource
sourceacting
actingalone,
alone,that
thatisis
with
withall
allother
othervoltage
voltagesources
sourcesreplaced
replacedby byshort
shortcircuits
circuitsand
andall
allother
other
current sources replaced by open circuits
current sources replaced by open circuits
EXAMPLE 2
Applying superposition theorem calculate all
the branch currents anf voltage v.

V
R1
i S1 v S1
i
i1 R2 2

DATA : iS 1  1A, R1  R2  2, vS 1  2V

102
SOLUTION
• The ciruit with acting current source:

R1 R2
v '  iS 1  1V
v'
R1
R1  R2
i S1
v'
i' i '1   0 .5 A
i'1 R2 2 R1
v'
i '2   0.5 A
R2
• The subcircuit with acting voltage source vS2

v ''
R1
v S1
i"
i1 " R2 2

vS 1
i1 ' '  i2 ' '   0.5 A
R1  R2 v"  i1"R1  1V
 v' R1
v''
i S1 R1
v S1

i'1 R2 i'
2
i1 " R2
i"
2

v
R1
i S1 v S1

i1 i
R2 2

i1  i  i  0.5  0.5  1.0 A

'
1
''
1

i2  i2'  i2''  0.5  0.5  0 A

v  v  v  1  1  2V
' ''
105
Basing on the original formula n m
i   hi vsi   ki isi
i 1 i 1

R1
i S1 v S2

i1 R2

1 R1
i1  vS 1  iS 1
R1  R2 R1  R2
 
k1
h1
106
 Example

of solving simple resistive circuit

with use of KCL and KVL
equations
 R1  5, R2  10,
R3  5,
vS 1  5V , vS 2  10V
R1 R2

v R3 v
S1 S2

• Calculate all the branch currents and element

voltages. Assuming that resistor R2 is a circuit
load, calculate efficiency of the circuit, confirm
Tellegen’s theorem.

108
 i1 R1 i1 1 i2 i2 R2

R1 R2

v R3 i3 R3 v
S2
S1 3
2
i3

1  i1  i2  i3  0  i1  i2  i3  0

2  i1R1  i3 R3  vS1  0  5i1  5i3  5
10i  5i  10
3 i2 R2  vS 2  i3 R3  0  2 3

109
 i1  i2  i3  0  i1  i2  i3  0
 
 5i1  5i3  5 i1  i3  1 +
10i  5i  10 2i  i  2
 2 3  2 3

 i2  2i3  1  2i2  4i3  2

 
2i2  i3  2 2i2  i3  2 +
5i3  4
i3  0.8 A i2  2i3  1  0.6 A
i1  i3  i2  0.2 A
110
 PR3  Pout  i32 R3  0.64  5  3.2W

PT  PIN  vS 1i1  vS 2i2  5  0.2  10  0.6  7W

or PT  PIN  i12 R1  i22 R2  i32 R3  0.2 2  5  0.6 2 10  0.82  5  7W

Pout 3.2
   0.457
PT 7

  45.7%
111
Veryfication of the Tellegen’s
Theorem
Total power of the system
 v1  i1 R1
i1 i2 v2  i2 R2

R1 R2
b

v R3 uv33  i33RR33 v v i
k 1
k k
S1 S2

i3

vS 1  i1   i1 R1 i1  vS 2  i2   i2 R2 i2  i3 R3 i3

 5   0.2   0.2  50.2  10   0.6  
 0.6 100.6  0.8  50.8  0

113