NERVOUS SYSTEM

GROUP 4-STEM 12A

DOCOS, PATRICIA CANDICE
CAPUNGCOL, CHLOE ANGELI
GORGONIA, JUSTIN JERWYN
PARRILLA, JACQUES RAPHAEL
TWO MAJOR PARTS:

· CENTRAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
· PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS
SYSTEM:
• controls and regulates activities of
different parts and organs of the body.
• regulates internal environment of the
body by coordinating the working glands
and tissues of the body
• helps the organism to react to the
external environment through various
sense organs
 CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM

• BRAIN • SPINAL
CORD
 BRAIN
• “Control center of the body”
• has a wrinkled appearance due to
bulges and depressions known
as gyri and sulci
• three main brain divisions: the
forebrain, the brainstem, and the
hindbrain.
 FOREBRAIN
• responsible for a variety of functions including
receiving and processing sensory information,
thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding
language, and controlling motor function.
• contains structures such as
the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible
for such functions as motor control, relaying sensory
information, and controlling autonomic functions
• also contains the largest part of the brain,
the cerebrum.
 MIDBRAIN
• midbrain and the hindbrain together
make up the brainstem.
• the portion of the brainstem that
connects the hindbrain and the forebrain
• involved in auditory and visual responses
as well as motor function
 HINDBRAIN
• extends from the spinal cord and contains
structures such as the pons and cerebellum.
• assist in maintaining balance and
equilibrium, movement coordination, and
the conduction of sensory information
• also contains the medulla oblongata which is
responsible for controlling such autonomic
functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
 SPINAL CORD
• cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers that is
connected to the brain
• runs down the center of the protective spinal column
extending from the neck to the lower back
• spinal cord nerves transmit information from body
organs and external stimuli to the brain and send
information from the brain to other areas of the body.
The nerves of the spinal cord are grouped into bundles of
nerve fibers that travel in two pathways. Ascending nerve
tracts carry sensory information from the body to the
brain. Descending nerve tracts send information
pertaining to motor function from the brain to the rest of
the body.
TWO TYPES OF CELLS IN
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• NEURONS
• GLIA
 NEURONS
• basic unit of the nervous system; all cells
of the nervous system are comprised of
neurons
• contain nerve processes which are
"finger-like" projections that extend from
the nerve cell body
• consist of axons and dendrites which are
able to conduct and transmit signals
• Axons-carry signals away from the cell body; long
nerve processes that may branch out to convey
signals to various areas
• Dendrites- act like antennae; receive signals from,
for example, other neurons and pass them on to the
cell body
• Axon terminals-at the end of axons make the actual
connection to other neurons
• Cell body or soma- carries out the basic life
processes of neurons
Neurons are classified as either:

• Motor neurons carry information from the

central nervous system to organs, glands, and
muscles.
• Sensory neurons send information to the
central nervous system from internal organs
or from external stimuli.
• Interneurons relay signals between motor
and sensory neurons.
 GLIA
• protects the neurons,
but also modify their
action
 NERVES
• A bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS
Within a nerve, neuron fibers, or processes, are wrapped in protective connective
tissue coverings. Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheathe,
an endoneurium. Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue
wrapping, the perineurium, to form bundles, or fascicles. Finally, all the fascicles
are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to form the cordlike
nerve.
Like neurons, nerves are classified according to the direction in which they transmit
impulses.
• Mixed nerves – nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers
• Sensory or afferent nerves – send information to the CNS from internal organs or
from external stimuli
• Motor or efferent nerves – carry information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and
glands
­- the motor nervous system is divided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
• These cells carry information to (sensory nervous cells) and from (motor nervous
cells) the central nervous system
• Both types of cells travel together to the spinal cord, but then they separate into
two areas. One is called the posterior sensory root, and the other is called the
anterior sensory root.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Part of the nervous system outside the CNS
• Consists mainly of nerves that extend from the brain to
the spinal cord
• Consists of nerves and scattered groups of neuronal cell
bodies (ganglia) found outside the CNS.
• Ganglia – small collection of cell bodies
• Spinal nerves – carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
• Cranial nerves – carry impulses to and from the brain
*These nerves serve as communication lines. They link all parts
of the body by carrying impulses from the sensory receptors to
the CNS and from the CNS to the appropriate glands or
muscles
 Peripheral nervous system connections

• Peripheral nervous system connections with various

organs and structures of the body are established
through cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
• There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in the brain that
establish connections in the head and upper body,
while 31 pairs of spinal nerves do the same for the
rest of the body. While some cranial nerves contain
only sensory neurons, most cranial nerves and all
spinal nerves contain both motor and sensory
neurons.
 Cranial Nerves
1. Olfactory – purely sensory; carries impulses for the sense of
smell
2. Optic – purely sensory; carries impulses for vision
3. Oculomotor – supplies motor fibers to four of the six
muscles (superior, inferior, and medial rectus, and inferior
oblique) that direct the eyeball; to the eyelid; and to the
internal eye muscles controlling lens shape and pupil size
4. Trochlear – supplies motor fibers for one external eye
muscle (superior oblique)
5. Trigeminal – conducts sensory impulses from the skin of the
face and mucosa of the nose and mouth; also contains
motor fibers that activate the chewing muscles
6. Abducens – supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus
muscle, which rolls the eyes laterally
7. Facial – activates the muscles of facial expression and the lacrimal and
salivary glands; carries sensory impulses from the taste bud of anterior
tongue
8. Vestibulocochlear – purely sensory; vestibular branch transmits
impulses for the sense of balance, and cochlear branch transmits
impulses for the sense of hearing
9. Glossopharyngeal – supplies motor fibers to the pharynx (throat) that
promote swallowing and saliva production; carries sensory impulses
from taste buds of the posterior tongue and from pressure receptors of
the carotid artery
10. Vagus – fibers carry sensory impulses from and motor impulses to the
pharynx, larynx, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera; most motor
fibers are parasympathetic fibers that promote digestive activity and
help regulate heart activity
11. Accessory – mostly motor fibers that activate the sternocleidomastoid
and trapezius msucles
12. Hypoglossal – motor fibers control tongue movements; sensory fibers
carry impulses from the tongue
 Spinal nerves and nerve plexuses
• named for the region of the cord from which they
arise.
• Almost immediately after being formed, each spinal
nerve divides into dorsal and ventral rami, making
each spinal nerve only about ½ inch long.
• Smaller dorsal rami – serve the skin and muscles of
the posterior body trunk
• Ventral rami – form the intercostal nerves, which
supply the muscles between the ribs and the skin
and muscles of the anterior and lateral trunk
• Plexuses – complex network of nerves
Plexus Origin (from Important nerves Body areas served Result of damage to
ventral rami) plexus or its nerves
Cervical C1-C5 Phrenic Diaphragm; skin and muscles Respiratory paralysis
of shoulder and neck (and death if not
treated promptly)
Brachial C5-C8 and T1 Axillary Deltoid muscle and skin of Paralysis and atrophy
shoulder; muscles and skin of of deltoid muscle
superior thorax

Radial Triceps and extensor muscles Wristdrop – inability

of the forearm; skin of to extend hand at
posterior upper limb wrist

Flexor muscles and skin of Decreased ability to

Median forearm and some muscles of flex and abduct hand
the hand and flex and abduct
thumb and index
finger - therefore,
inability to pick up
small objects

Musculocutaneous Flexor muscles of arm; skin of Decreased ability to

lateral forearm flex forearm

Ulnar Some flexor muscles of Clawhand – inability

forearm; wrist and many hand to spread fingers
muscles; skin of hand apart
Plexus Origin (from ventral Important nerves Body areas served Result of damage to
rami) plexus or its nerves
Lumbar L1-L4 Femoral Lower abdomen, anterior and Inability to extend leg
medial thigh muscles (hip and flex hip; loss of
flexors and knee extensors), and cutaneous sensation
skin of anteromedial leg and Inability to adduct
thigh thigh

Obturator Adductor muscles of medial

thigh and small hip muscles;
skin of medial thigh and hip
joint

Sacral L4-L5 and S1-S4 Sciatic (largest nerve in Lower trunk and posterior Inability to extend hip
body; splits to common surface of thigh (hip extensors and flex knee; sciatica
fibular and tibial nerves and knee flexors)
just above knee)

- Common fibular
(superficial and Lateral aspect of leg and foot Footdrop – inability to
deep branches) dorsiflex foot

- Tibial (including
sural and plantar Posterior aspect of leg and foot Inability to plantar flex
branches) and invert foot;
shuffling gait
Superior and inferior Gluteus muscles of the hip
gluteal Inability to extend hip
(maximus) or abduct
and medially rotate
thigh (medius)
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control our
skeletal muscles as well as external sensory organs such
as the skin
• often referred to as the voluntary nervous system
• said to be voluntary because the responses can be
controlled consciously. Reflex reactions of skeletal
muscles, however, are an exception. These are
involuntary reactions to external stimuli.
• Somatic reflexes – includes all reflexes that stimulate the
skeletal muscles. When you quickly pull your hand away
from a hot object, a somatic reflex is working.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

-regulates certain body processes, such as

blood pressure and the rate of breathing,
that work without conscious effort
DIVIDED INTO:
• Sympathetic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic Nervous System
• Enteric (gastrointestinal) Nervous System
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• activates what is often termed the fight or flight response.
• characterized by the release of large quantities
of epinephrine from the adrenal gland, an increase in heart
rate, an increase in cardiac output, skeletal muscle
vasodilation, cutaneous and gastrointestinal
vasoconstriction, pupillary dilation, bronchial dilation, and
piloerection; overall effect is to prepare the individual
for immenent danger.
• normally functions to produce localized adjustments (such
as sweating as a response to an increase in temperature)
and reflex adjustments of the cardiovascular system.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• primarily modulates visceral organs such as glands.
• While providing important control of many tissues,
the parasympathetic system, unlike the sympathetic
system, is not crucial for the maintenance of life.
• Its motor component consists of preganglionic and
postganglionic neurons.
• controls homeostasis and the body at rest and is
responsible for the body's "rest and digest"
function.
 Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic Responses

With sympathetic nervous responses, the body

speeds up, tenses up and becomes more alert. The parasympathetic nervous
Functions that are not essential for survival are system counterbalances the sympathetic nervous
shut down. system. It restores the body to a state of calm.
• increase in the rate and constriction
of the heart • decrease in heart rate
• dilation of bronchial tubes in the • constriction of bronchial
lungs and pupils in the eyes
tubes in the lungs and
• contraction of muscles
•
pupils in the eyes
release of adrenaline from the
adrenal gland • relaxation of muscles
• conversion of glycogen to glocuse to • saliva production: the
provide energy for the muscles.
• shut down of processes not critical
stomach moves and
for survival increases secretions for
• decrease in saliva production: the digestion.
stomach does not move for
digestion, nor does it release
• increase in urinary output
digestive secretions.
• decrease in urinary output
 ENTRIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• a separate nervous system for
the bowel, which, to a great
extent, autonomously regulates
bowel motility in digestion
 NERVOUS SYSTEM OF A FROG

Frog has a highly developed nervous system and

the nervous system of a frog is divisible into:
• Central Nervous system
• Peripheral nervous system and
• Autonomic Nervous system
 CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM OF A FROG
It is divisible into:
Anterior Portion- BRAIN
(encephlon) lying in the cavity of
the cranium
Posterior Portion- SPINAL CORD
(myelon) which lies in the neural
canal of the vertebral column
 BRAIN
• contained in a bony structure known as brain box or
cranium and protects it from the external shocks
• control and coordinate functions of body cells,
tissues and organ systems so they act harmoniously
as a unit
• consists of a pair of occipital condyles
(a protrusion on the occipital bone of the skull that f
orms a joint withthe first cervical vertebra, enabling
the head to move relative to theneck.)
• frog's brain is divisible into three parts namely:
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
 The frog's brain is divisible into three parts namely:

• FORE-BRAIN
-consists of olfactory lobes, a pair of cerebral hemispheres, and unpaired
diencephalon Olfactory lobe of frog's brain controls the sense of smell
*FOREBRAIN OLFACTORY LOBES
Location: two rounded or oval lobes at the anterior end of brain
Function: center of sense of smell
*CEREBRUM OR CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
Location: two oblongated hemispheres lying immediately behind the olfactory lobes
Function: seat of intelligence, thought and memory and contorols voluntary and
spontaneous actions, center of sight, smell
• MID-BRAIN
-consists of a pair of optic lobes; optic lobes are invloved in the frog's vision
* MIDBRAIN OPTIC LOBES
Location: oval hollow vessicels on the dorsal side of the brain and forming the widest
part of brain.
Function: seats of sense of sight. the midbrain also controls the activities of eye
muscles.
· HIND-BRAIN
-consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata;
*CEREBELLUM
Location: in the form of a narrow band in front of the medulla and behind the
optic lobes; not well developed in frogs.
Function: balancing organ and controls the mechanism of
autonomic and voluntary movements
*DIENCEPHALON
Location: rectangular part that is located between the optic lobes
behind and posterior to the cerebral hemispheres
Function: beset with the center of autononomic NS.
*MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Location: most posterior part of the brain; its anterior part is
broader than the posterior and is hollowed out by a broad
triangular cavity (metacoel)
Function: governs the involuntary actions; nerves arising from
medulla supply impulses to heart, lungs, stomach etc. ; passes
out via the foramen magnum and continues into the spinal cord
of the frog up to the tip of its trunk, which is contained in the
vertebral column and helps in the regulation of respiration,
digestion, and other automatic functions
 SPINAL CORD
• the posterior continuation of brain which
extends posteriorly into the central canal of
vertebral column
• starts from the foramen magnum, runs
through the entire length of neural canal
and ends posteriorly in the last vertebra in
the form of a thin filament (filum terminale)
 FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD

• seat of reflex action; controls and

originates impulses in response to
such sensory stimuli which are
independent of the brain
• serves as a pathway to such
sensory stimuli which are passed
to the brain
 SPINAL NERVES OF A FROG
10 pairs of nerves (left, right) arise from the side of the spinal cord . ach nerve arising
by two roots, a ventral (anterior) and a dorsal (posterior), which unite at their point
of exit from the vertebral canal through intervertebral foramen.
Emerge between vertebrae 1st Spinal Nerve (Hypoglossal)
Location: emerges out from the neural canal through the first pair of intervertebral
foramina between the 1st and 2nd vertebra
Function: Called such because it innervates the muscles of tongue, jaws and hyoid
2nd and 3rd Special Nerve
Location: Leave the canal between the 2nd & 3rd and 3rd & 4th vertebrae
respectively.
Function: receives the branches of the 1st & 3rd spinal nerves to form a brachial
plexus to the shoulder and forelimb region
4th, 5th and 6th Spinal Nerve
Location: Leave vertebral canal between 4th & 5th , 5th & 6th and 6th & 7th
vertebrae respectively.
Function: supply the muscles and skin of the body wall
7th, 8th and 9th Spinal Nerves
Location: The 7th nerve leaves the canal between 7th &
8th vertebrae, the 8th nerve between 8th & 9th
vertebrae and the 9th nerve between the 9th or sacral
sacral vertebrae and the urostyle.
Function: form the sciatic plexus, from which branches
are given to the large intestine, bladder, oviducts
10th Spinal Nerve (Coccygeal)
Location: Emerges through a small hole in the side of
the urostyle near its anterior end.
Function: gives branches to the bladder, cloaca and
oviducts
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(i) Cranial Nerves
(ii) Spinal nerves
• Ten pair of cranial nerves are present in the frog (as
compared to twelve pairs present in human) and it arises from
the brain and innervate to the different parts of body. Cranial
nerves are involved in passing the information from outside to
the brain.
• Frog contains 10 pairs of spinal nerves (as compared to 30
pairs present in humans. Spinal nerves of frog appear as white
in color and are thread-like structures that emerge between
the vertebrae and are located along the dorsal wall of body
cavity. Spinal nerves functions in passing information from the
extremities to brain through spinal cord.
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Made up of :
(1)Sympathetic Nervous System
(2) Parasympathetic Nervous System
 SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
-activated mainly during emergency or stressful
situation; initiates the organs to work
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
-active during moments of rest and repose; slows
down the speed
For example, if a frog is feared, the sympathetic nerves
enhance heart beating and conversion of glycogen into
sugar in liver, but the parasympathetic fibers slowly
remove this effect to bring the normal condition.
 Sympathetic VS.
Parasympathetic
FROG VS. MAN
Frogs have 10 pairs of cranial nerves and 10 pairs
of spinal nerves. Man has 12 pairs of cranial nerves
and 30 pairs of spinal nerves. The relative size of
the cerebrum in frog is much smaller and they lack
cerebral cortex. The relative size of man's cerebrum
is much bigger and they possess cerebral cortex.
Each brain appears to have two (2) hemispheres
Both are classified as vertebrates, with a spine and
nerves that spread across the body. Each brain has a
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
DISEASES
• EPILEPSY
-fourth most common neurological disorder and
affects people of all ages
-means the same thing as "seizure disorders"
-characterized by unpredictable seizures and can
cause other health problems
-spectrum condition with a wide range of
seizure types and control varying from person-
to-person
• Parkinson's disease (PD)
- a chronic and progressive
movement disorder,
meaning that symptoms
continue and worsen over
time
- cause is unknown, and
although there is presently
no cure, there are treatment
options such as medication
and surgery to manage its
symptoms
 MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
• chronic, neurodegenerative condition that affects the
central nervous system (CNS).
• affects people differently and is an unpredictable disease
• body’s own immune system appears to attack the
protective sheath of fatty protein, called myelin, which
surrounds the nerves in the brain, spinal cord and the
optic nerve.
• an attack results in inflammation and development of
one or more lesions, resulting in scarring (sclerotic
plaque), forming on the nerves; these lesions interfere
with the nerve messages sent back and forward through
the brain, and spinal cord.