Linear Algebra

4.1
Binary Operations:

A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving two

elements of the set to produce another element of the same set.
(or)
A binary operation on a set S is a mapping of the elements of
the Cartesian product S × S to S.
*: S  S  S
(or)
An operation * on a non-empty set A is said to be a binary
operation if
a  A & b  A, then a * b A (Closure Property)

4.2
Group:
A non empty set S with the binary operation * is said to be
group if it satisfies the following conditions;
1. Closure property: a  S & b  S, then a * b; S
2. Associative property: u * (v * w) = (u * v) * w for all
u, v, w ∈ S; (Semi group)
3. Identity property: there exists an element e ∈ S such that
u * e = e * u = u for all u ∈ S. ( Monoid )
4. Inverse property: For every u ∈ S, there exists an element
v ∈ S such that u * v = v * u = e. Then v is said to an
1 (Group)
inverse of u and denote by u .
5. Commutative property: u * v = v * u for all u, v ∈ S.
(Abelian Group)

4.3
Vector Space:
A vector space over a field F (in this entire course it is ℝ) is
a non empty set V together with two operations vector addition
‘+’ (just for name it is no need to usual addition) and scalar
multiplication that satisfy the ten axioms listed below.
I. Abelian group under addition;
1. Closure property: u & v  V, then u  v; V
2. Associative property: u+(v+w) = (u+v)+w for all u,v,w ∈V;
3. Identity property: there exists an element e ∈ V such that
u + e = e + u = u for all u ∈ V;
4. Inverse property: For every u ∈ V, there exists an element -u
∈ V such that u + (-u) = (-u) + u = e. Then -u is said to an
additive inverse of u;
5. Commutative property: u + v = v + u for all u, v ∈ V.
4.4
II. Scalar multiplication;

6. Closure property: u  V &   F, then  u; V

7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector

addition :  (u  v)   u   v  u, v  V &   F

8. Distributive property of vector addition over scalar

multiplication: (   )u   u   u  u  V &  ,   F

9. Associative property:
( )u   (  u)   u  u  V &  ,   F

10. 1.u = u for all u ∈ V.

4.5
Examples:
The set will form a vector space over ℝ with usual vector addition and scalar
multiplication given by
( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2) = ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 )
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 ) =( 𝑘 𝑥 1 ,𝑘 𝑦 1 )
Proof: I. Abelian group under addition

1. Closure property:
Let where ,
we need to prove that

Now
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1+ 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦∈
2) ℝ
2

Therefore
𝑢 , 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 2 implies 𝑢+ 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 2

4.6
2. Associativity property:

Let where & ,

we need to prove that

Now
}

¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 ) +(𝑥3 , 𝑦 3)

𝑢+ ( 𝑣+ 𝑤 )= (𝑢 +𝑣 ) +𝑤

4.7
3. Identity Property:

Wsuch that

for all
Let such that

𝑢+ 𝑒=( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 ) +( 0 , 0) 𝑒 +𝑢=( 0 , 0 )+ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 +0 , 𝑦 1+ 0 ) ¿ ( 0 + 𝑥 1 , 0 + 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1) ¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1)
𝑢+ 𝑒=𝑢 𝑒 +𝑢=𝑢

Therefore
for all

4.8
 4. Inverse Property:

Wthere exists such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

Let such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( − 𝑥 1 , − 𝑦 1 ) (−𝑢)+𝑢=( − 𝑥1 , − 𝑦 1) + ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ (0 , 0) ¿ (0 , 0)

𝑢+(−𝑢)=𝑒 ( −𝑢 )+ 𝑢=𝑒

Therefore
𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

4.9
5. Commutative Property:

for all

Now,
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 )
¿ ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 1 )
¿ ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 ) +( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.10
II Scalar Multiplication
6. Closure Property:
W

such that
Now,
𝛼 𝑢=𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

𝛼 𝑢=( 𝛼 𝑥 1 ,𝛼 𝑦 1∈
) ℝ2
Therefore
we have

4.11
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣

Now, }

¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥1+ 𝑥2, 𝑦1+ 𝑦2)

¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 +𝛼 𝑥 2 , 𝛼 𝑦 1+ 𝛼 𝑦 2 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 ,𝛼 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝛼 𝑥2 , 𝛼 𝑦 2 )
¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +𝛼 ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )
𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Therefore
2
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 =ℝ ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾

4.12
8. Distributive property of vector addition over scalar multiplication :

W for all

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢

Now, ( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1)
( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑢=( ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑥 1 , ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑦 1 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 + 𝛽 𝑥 1 ,𝛼 𝑦 1 + 𝛽 𝑦 2 )

¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 ,𝛼 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝛽 𝑦 1 )

¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + 𝛽 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )
( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.13
9. Associative property of vector with scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝛽 𝑦 1 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝛼𝛽 𝑦 1 )
¿ 𝛼𝛽 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )
𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
Therefore for all

10. Property 10: 1 ( 𝑢 )=1 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( (1) 𝑥 1 , (1) 𝑦 1 )The set of all order pairs
¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1) with usual vector addition and
scalar multiplication is vector space
1 ( 𝑢 )=𝑢
4.14
2. Examples:
Is the set with vector addition and scalar multiplication given below form a
vector space
( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2) = ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 )
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 ) =( 𝑘 𝑥 1 , 0 )
Proof: I. Abelian group under addition

1. Closure property:
Let where ,
we need to prove that

Now
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1+ 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 +∈𝑦ℝ
2)
2

Therefore
𝑢 , 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 2 implies 𝑢+ 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 2

4.15
2. Associativity property:

Let where & ,

we need to prove that

Now
}

¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 ) +(𝑥3 , 𝑦 3)

𝑢+ ( 𝑣+ 𝑤 )= (𝑢 +𝑣 ) +𝑤

4.16
3. Identity Property:

Wsuch that

for all
Let such that

𝑢+ 𝑒=( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 ) +( 0 , 0) 𝑒 +𝑢=( 0 , 0 )+ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 +0 , 𝑦 1+ 0 ) ¿ ( 0 + 𝑥 1 , 0 + 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1) ¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1)
𝑢+ 𝑒=𝑢 𝑒 +𝑢=𝑢

Therefore
for all

4.17
 4. Inverse Property:

Wthere exists such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

Let such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( − 𝑥 1 , − 𝑦 1 ) (−𝑢)+𝑢=( − 𝑥1 , − 𝑦 1) + ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ (0 , 0) ¿ (0 , 0)

𝑢+(−𝑢)=𝑒 ( −𝑢 )+ 𝑢=𝑒

Therefore
𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

4.18
5. Commutative Property:

for all

Now,
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 )
¿ ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 1 )
¿ ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 ) +( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.19
II Scalar Multiplication
6. Closure Property:
W

such that
Now,
𝛼 𝑢=𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

𝛼 𝑢=( 𝛼 𝑥 1 ,0
∈)ℝ
2

Therefore
we have

4.20
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣

Now, 𝛼 (𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣

𝛼 { ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2) }=𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1) +𝛼 ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )

𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 )= ( 𝛼 𝑥1 , 0 ) + ( 𝛼 𝑥 2 ,0 )

( 𝛼 𝑥 1 +𝛼 𝑥 2 , 0 )= ( 𝛼 𝑥1 +𝛼 𝑥 2 ,0 )
𝐿 𝐻𝑆=𝑅𝐻𝑆
Therefore
2
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 =ℝ ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾

4.21
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣

Now, }

¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥1+ 𝑥2, 𝑦1+ ( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 12, 𝑦) 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2) =( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2

𝑦

¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 +𝛼 𝑥 2 , 0+( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘0( 𝑥)1 , 𝑦 1 ) =( 𝑘 𝑥 1 , 0 )

¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 , 0 ) + ( 𝛼 𝑥2 , 0 )
¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +𝛼 ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )
𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Therefore
2
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 =ℝ ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾

4.22
8. Distributive property of vector addition over scalar multiplication :

W for all

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢

Now, ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑢= ( ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑥 1 , 0 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 + 𝛽 𝑥 1 ,0 +0 )

¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥1 , 0)+ ( 𝛽 𝑥1, 0 )

¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + 𝛽 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢

Therefore
for all

4.23
9. Associative property of vector with scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 0 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥1, 0 )
¿ 𝛼𝛽 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )
𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
Therefore for all

4.24
9. Associative property of vector addition and scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )=𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 1 ,0 ) ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢=( 𝛼𝛽 𝑥 1 , 0)

¿ ( 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥1, 0 )

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
The set of all order pairs
10. Property 10: with the vector addition and
1 ( 𝑢 )= ((1) 𝑥 1 , 0 ) scalar multiplication
¿ ( 𝑥1 , 0) ( 𝑖 ) 𝑢+𝑣 =( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +(𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2)
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘𝑢= ( 𝑘 𝑥 1 ,0 )
1 ( 𝑢) ≠ 𝑢
is not a vector space, since Axiom 10
fails.
4.25
THANK YOU

4.26