OPM 6 - Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control
Phases of Quality Assurance
Inspection Corrective Quality built

GRGSMS – Educate to Empower
before/after action during into the

production production process
Acceptance Process Continuous

sampling control improvement
The least The most

progressive progressive
2
Inspection Process
Where/When
How Much/How Often
Centralized vs. On-site
Inputs Transformation Outputs
Acceptance Process Acceptance

sampling control sampling
3
Where to Inspect in the Process
Raw materials and purchased parts

Finished products
Before any operation that adds high materials

or labour costs to the product.
After any operation that produces large
number of defective items
Before an irreversible process
4
Before a covering process
Inspection Costs
Cost
Total Cost
Cost of
inspection
Cost of
Optimal passing
defectives
Amount of Inspection
5
Examples of Inspection Points
Type of Inspection Characteristics
business points
Fast Food Cashier Accuracy
Counter area Appearance, productivity

Eating area Cleanliness
Building Appearance
Kitchen Health regulations
Hotel/motel Parking lot Safe, well lighted
Accounting Accuracy, timeliness
Building Appearance, safety
Main desk Waiting times
Supermarket Cashiers Accuracy, courtesy
Deliveries Quality, quantity
6
Statistical Process Control - Meaning
SPC is the application of statistical techniques to

determine whether the output of a process conforms
to the product or service design.
A conclusion drawn about a population based on the

information in a sample drawn from the population
is called a STATISTICAL INFERENCE
Control chart, an SPC tool, is used to detect
production of defective products.
Acceptance Sampling is the application of
statistical techniques to determine whether a
quantity of material should be accepted or rejected
7
based on the inspection or test of a sample.
Sources of Variation
No two products are exactly alike

Reasons could be:
Tool wear
Material hardness
Operator Skill
Temperature variation during processing, etc.
Nothing can be done to eliminate variation
But ‘Causes’ can be identified to ‘minimize’
variations
8
Categories of Variations
Common causes of variation are:

Natural variations in the output of process, created by
countless minor factors
Purely random, unidentifiable sources of variation

that are unavoidable with current process
Assignable causes of variation: Any variation-
causing factors that can be identified and eliminated.
May include:
An employee needing training
A machine needing repairs
9
Process Distribution : Only Common Causes
Mean
425 Grams
10
Effects of Assignable Causes - Location
Mean
425
Grams
11
Effects of Assignable Causes - Spread
Mean
Grams
12
Quality Measurement – 2 Types
Quality can be evaluated in two ways:

Variables i.e. P or S characteristics such as :
Weight, Length, Volume, Time that can be Measured

Attributes i.e. P or S characteristics that can be
quickly counted for acceptable quality.
The method allows simple yes-no decision w.r.t. specs
Used when measuring by variables is difficult or costly
Pros: Only less effort and fewer resources are needed
Cons: Indicates that quality of performance has
changed but does not indicate by how much.
13
Relationship Between Sample Means & Process
Distribution
Mean Distribution of
Sample Means
Process
distribution
425 Grams
14
The Normal Distribution
Standard deviation
Mean
     
68.26%
95.44%
15 99.74%
Control Limits
Sampling
distribution
Process
distribution
Mean
Lower Control Upper Control

Limit Limit
16
Relationship of Control Limits to Sampling Distribution
and Observations from Three Samples
UCL
Nominal
LCL
1 2 3
Assignable
Sample Number Causes Likely
17
How to Use Control Charts
Take a random sample from the process

Measure the quality characteristics, and
Calculate a variable or attribute measure

If the statistic falls outside the chart’s control
limits, look for assignable causes
Eliminate the cause if it degrades quality
Incorporate the cause if it improves quality
Reconstruct the control chart with new data
Repeat the procedure periodically
18
Control Chart
Abnormal variation Out of

due to assignable sources control
UCL
Mean
Normal variation
due to chance
LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
19
Control Chart – Problem Detection
UCL
Variations
Nominal
LCL
Sample Number
20
Type I Error and Type II Error
A Type I error occurs when the employee

concludes that the process is out of control
based on a sample result that falls outside the

control limits, when in fact it was due to pure
randomness
A Type II error occurs when the employee
concludes that the process is in control and
only randomness is present, when actually the
process is out of statistical control
21
Type I Error & Type II Error
Type II Error : Probability of concluding that nothing has changed

/2 /2
Mean
LCL UCL
Type I Error : Probability ( of searching for a cause when none

22 exists
Control Chart for Variables
Control charts for variables are used to monitor:
Variability of the process distribution, and
The Mean
R-Charts : A range chart or R-Chart is used to

monitor process variability. The control limits for
R-Chart are :
UCLR = D4R and LCLR = D3R
Where R = Average of several past R values and the central line
of the control chart
D3 , D4 = Constants that provide three standard deviation ( 3σ)
limits for a given sample size.
23
Factors for Calculating 3σ Limits for x bar
Chart and R-Chart
X-bar and R Chart
Sample
Size (n) A2 D3 D4
2 1.880 0 3.267
3 1.023 0 2.574
4 0.729 0 2.282
5 0.577 0 2.114
6 0.483 0 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
24 10 0.308 0.223 1.777
Control Chart for Variables
x-bar chart
An x-bar Chart is used to measure the mean
X-bar Chart must be constructed only after
Assignable causes of process variability have been identified, and
The process is in statistical control

The control limits for the x-bar chart are:
UCLx = x-bar + A2R and LCLx = x-bar – A2R
Where,
X-bar = Central line of the chart and either the average of past
sample means or a target value set for the process
A2 = Constant to provide 3σ limits for the sample mean
Note that the control limits use the value of R; Therefore the
x-bar chart must be constructed after the process variability
25 is in control.
Mean and Range Charts
Sampling
Distribution (process variability is increasing)
UCL
Does not
x-Chart
reveal increase
LCL
UCL
R-chart Reveals increase
26 LCL
Mean and Range Charts
(process mean is
shifting upward)
Sampling
Distribution
UCL
x-Chart Detects shift
LCL
UCL
Does not
R-chart
detect shift
27 LCL
Data for x-bar and R-Charts
Observations of Screw Dia.
Sam
Observation
ple R x-bar
No. 1 2 3 4
1 0.5014 0.5022 0.5009 0.5027 0.0018 0.5018

2 0.5021 0.5041 0.5024 0.5020 0.0021 0.5027
3 0.5018 0.5026 0.5035 0.5023 0.0017 0.5026
4 0.5008 0.5034 0.5024 0.5015 0.0026 0.5020
5 0.5041 0.5056 0.5034 0.5047 0.0022 0.5045
Average 0.0021 0.5027
R-Chart : UCLR = D4R = 2.282 (0.0021) = 0.00479 LCLR = D3R = 0

X-bar Chart: UCLx = x-bar + A2R = 0.5027 + 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5042
28 and LCLx = x-bar – A2R = 0.5027 – 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5012
How to Construct Control Charts?
1. Collect data on the variable quality measurement, preferably at
least 20 samples to be taken for use in CC.
2. Compute the range for each sample and the average range, R, for
the set of samples.
3. Use Table to determine UCL and LCL of the R-Chart.

4. Plot the sample ranges. If all are in control proceed to x-bar
chart. Otherwise find the assignable causes, correct them, and
return to step 1.
5. Calculate x for each sample and the central line of the chart,
mean of means x-double bar.
6. Use Table to determine the parameters of UCLx and LCLx and
construct the chart.
7. Plot the sample means. If all are in control, the process is in
statistical control in terms of process variability. If any are out of
29 control, find the assignable causes, correct them and return to
step1.
Control Chart for Attributes
Two charts commonly used for quality measures based on P
or S attributes are the p-chart and the c-chart.
The p-chart is used for controlling the proportion of
defective P or S generated by the process.
When observations can be placed into two categories.

Good or bad, Pass or fail, Operate or don’t operate
When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations
each
The c-chart is used for controlling the number of defects
when more than one defect can be present in a P or S
Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be
counted
Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
Cracks or faults per unit of distance
Breaks or Tears per unit of area
Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
30
Calls, complaints, failures, per unit of time
P-Charts
The method involves:
Selecting a random sample, inspecting each item in it, and
Calculating the sample proportion defective, p, which is
the no. of defective units divided by the sample size.
The underlying statistical distribution is based on

‘Binomial Distribution’
For large sample sizes, the normal distribution provides a
good approximation to binomial distribution
The SD of the distribution of proportion defective is:
σp = √p(1 - p)/n where n = sample size
p = historical average population proportion defective or
target value and central line of the chart
UCLp = p + z σp and LCLp = p - z σp
31 z = normal deviate (number of SDs from the average)
C Charts
The underlying sampling distribution for a c-chart is
Poisson Distribution
It is based on the assumption that the probability of
two or more defects at any one location is negligible.

The mean of the distribution is c and the SD is √c.
A usual tactic is to use the normal approximation to
the Poisson so that the central line of the chart is c
and the control limits are :
UCLc = c + z √c and LCLc = c - z √c
32
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Statistical Process Control

Phases of Quality Assurance

Inspection Corrective Quality built

before/after action during into the

Acceptance Process Continuous

The least The most

Centralized vs. On-site

Inputs Transformation Outputs

Acceptance Process Acceptance

Raw materials and purchased parts

Before any operation that adds high materials

Counter area Appearance, productivity

SPC is the application of statistical techniques to

A conclusion drawn about a population based on the

No two products are exactly alike

Common causes of variation are:

Purely random, unidentifiable sources of variation

Quality can be evaluated in two ways:

Weight, Length, Volume, Time that can be Measured

     

Lower Control Upper Control

Take a random sample from the process

Calculate a variable or attribute measure

Abnormal variation Out of

A Type I error occurs when the employee

based on a sample result that falls outside the

Type II Error : Probability of concluding that nothing has changed

Type I Error : Probability ( of searching for a cause when none

R-Charts : A range chart or R-Chart is used to

The process is in statistical control

Distribution (process variability is increasing)

R-chart Reveals increase

x-Chart Detects shift

1 0.5014 0.5022 0.5009 0.5027 0.0018 0.5018

R-Chart : UCLR = D4R = 2.282 (0.0021) = 0.00479 LCLR = D3R = 0

3. Use Table to determine UCL and LCL of the R-Chart.

When observations can be placed into two categories.

The underlying statistical distribution is based on

two or more defects at any one location is negligible.

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