Introduction & Animal

Physiology
MARY JOY S. CAÑOLAS
Agriculturist, Lic # 0012269
Department of Animal Science
Fundamentals in Animal
Science
 INTRODUCTION
A. Animals in the Ecological System

[God commanded, “Let the earth produce all

kinds of animals life: domestic and wild,
large and small” – and it was done. (Gen.
1:24)]
1. Animals interact with the other
components of the ecological system
(e.g. man, plants, soil, water, sunlight,
air).
2. Animals provide food for mankind.
3. Animal wastes help restore soil fertility
and conserve natural resources.
4. Animals promote cultural heritage and
contribute to economic stability of
societies.
B. Animals and their Economic Utility
1. As food
 High in protein
 Contains all essential amino acids
 Moderate amounts of calories
 Meat and eggs are good sources of P and Fe
 Milk is a good source of Ca and P
 Contains all the vitamins required by man
 Highly digestible
2. Non-food role
 Fertilizer and fuel
 By-products for handicraft and feed
milling industries
 Transportation and cultivation of crops
 Storage of capital
 Medicinal value
C. Animal Agriculture and Population
Problem
1. As human population increases, demand for
animal products and by-products also
increases
2. Animal agriculture predominates in less
populated areas/countries
3. High population pressure tends to replace
animal agriculture with mechanized farming.
D. The Animal Industry
1. Cattle
 Predominantly backyard type (91% backyard vs.
9% commercial)
 Majority of the cattle population is concentrated
in Luzon (Pangasinan, Ilocos Norte, Isabela,
Batangas, Cebu and Bukidnon)
 More of beef type and few dairy type
 Population increase is at slow rate (4.2%
annually)
2. Carabao
 Raised in backyard farms (99.8%
backyard vs. 0.2% commercial)
 Top producing regions are Cagayan
Valley, Southern Tagalog, Bicol and
Western Visayas
 Population declined in 1994 (2.5 M) and
started to pick up in 1995 reaching 3 M
heads in 1998.
3. Swine
 79% are raised in backyard farms and
21% are raised in commercial farms.
 Population growth is continuously
increasing with its highest growth of 8.5%
annually in 1994-1995
 Swine production has consistently been a
major contributor to the total livestock
output
4. Goat
 99.6% are raised in backyard farms and
only 0.4% in commercial farms.
 There is increasing demand for chevon
and goat products
 Concentrated in Central Visayas, Southern
Mindanao and Ilocos regions
 Goat population steadily increased from
2.2 M in 1990 to 3.05 M heads in 1999.
5. Chickens
 The major chicken producing regions are
Southern Luzon, Central Luzon, Western
Visayas, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao
and Southern Mindanao (65%)
 Southern Tagalog – the top broiler producing
region (about 30% of total)
 Central Luzon, Southern Luzon, Central Visayas
and Southern Mindanao – top layer producing
region (82% of total)
6. Ducks
 79% are raised in backyard farms and
21% are in commercial farms.
 Concentrated in Central Luzon, Cagayan
Valley and Western Visayas.
 ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM
ANIMALS
A. External Anatomy of Farm
Animals
1. The head – composed of sensory
organs
2. The trunk – composed of dorsal and
ventral cavities, neck and appendages
3. The tail – begins at the caudal end of the
digestive tract
B. Internal Anatomy of Farm Animals
1. The Skeletal System
2. The Muscular System
3. The Nervous System
4. The Endocrine System
5. The Cardiovascular System
6. The Lymphatic System
7. The Respiratory System
8. The Urinary System
9. The Reproductive System
10. The Digestive System
11. The Receptive System
The Skeletal
System
Skeleton – framework of hard structures
which support and protect the soft tissues
of animals.
Osteology – study of the bones which
collectively make up the skeleton
Classification of bones
1. Long bones – elongated, cylindrical form
with enlarged extremities
Function: As support and as lever
Examples: Femur, humerus, radius, ulna,
tibia
2. Short bones – similar dimension in
length, width and thickness.
Function: Diffusing concussion
Example: Carpus and tarsus
3. Flat bones – expanded in two directions
Function: Protects the organ they cover
Examples: Bones of the skull, scapula and
Pelvic bones

4. Irregular bones – irregular in shape

Function: Not clearly specialized
Example: Vertebrae
Functions of Bones
1. Protect vital organs
2. Give rigidity and form to the body
3. Act as levers
4. Store minerals
5. Site for blood formation
The Muscular
System
Myology – study of muscle and their
accessory structures

Kinds of Muscle Tissue

1. Voluntary striated muscles
2. Involuntary striated muscles
3. Smooth muscles
1. Voluntary striated muscles
 connected directly or indirectly to the skeleton (skeletal
muscle)
 covers the greater part of the body
 determines the form of the body
 red in color with varying shades
 some are attached to the skin (cutaneous muscles)
 individual cells are striated (striped), multinuclear
located near the surface
 each muscle fiber is controlled by voluntary nerve
(motor neuron)
VOLUNTARY STRIATED MUSCLE (SKELETAL SYSTEM)
2. Involuntary striated muscles
 known as cardiac muscle (found in the
heart)
 cells are arranged in a network, striated
and nuclei are centrally located
 contraction requires no nerve stimulus (no
conscious control)
INVOLUNTARY STRAITED MUSCLE
3. Smooth muscles
 involuntary and unstriated
 found in visceral organs, walls of blood vessels,
urogenitals and respiratory organs
 contraction requires no nerve stimulus
 cells are spindle-shaped, arranged in sheets,
bundles or network with centrally-located nuclei
 some cells are scattered throughout the tissue
(e.g. skin muscle that raises the hair)
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Functions of Muscles
1. Source of protein
2. Provide power for movement of various body
parts (e.g. extensor muscle straightens body
parts, flexor muscles causes body parts to
bend, abductor muscle moves away from
plane and adductor muscles draws parts
toward the body plane).
3. Expel or force out secretions of organs, except
endocrine glands (involuntary muscles).
4. Provide impetus for movement of ingesta
5. Responsible for uterine motility
6. Aid in expelling fetus at parturition
7. Causes contraction of the heart and
increase or decrease the diameter of
blood vessels (regulates blood flow)
Nervous
System
Importance
1. Responsible for functional relation
between the organism and its
environment
2. Coordination of various parts or body
systems
Division of the Nervous System
1. Central nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system
3. Autonomic nervous system
Central nervous system
Brain
 Cerebrum (cells of cerebral cortex or gray
matter) – for highest type of mental
activities, e.g. voluntary muscle control,
interpretation of sensations and reasoning.
 Cerebellum (centrally-located or the white
matter)
 Brain stem (medulla oblongata)
Spinal Cord - caudal continuation of the
medulla oblongata
 Receives sensory (afferent) fibers by way
of the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves.
 Gives off the motor (efferent) fibers to the
ventral roots of the spinal nerves
Peripheral nervous system
Includes all nervous structures outside the brain
Spinal nerves – supply sensory and motor fibers.
The appendages are supplied by braidlike
arrangements of nerves known as plexuses.
Brachial plexus – supplied to each fore limb
Lumbo-sacral plexus – composed of right and
left plexuses made up of ventral branches of the
last few lumbar and first 1 or 2 sacral nerves.
Autonomic nervous system
Part of the peripheral nervous system that
innervates smooth muscles, cardiac muscles
and glands, subdivided into:
Sympathetic nervous system – also called the
thoraco-lumbar portion because the sympathetic
outflow is mainly from the thoracic and lumbar
spinal nerves.
Parasympathetic nervous system – made up of
a cranial and sacral portion.
Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic
stimulation on various effector organs
The Endocrine
System
Hormone – chemical substance produced by
endocrine glands that are carried by the
circulation to the target organs.
1. Pituitary Gland
2. Adrenal Gland
3. Thyroid
4. Parathyroid Glands
5. Pancreas
6. Gonads
The Pituitary Gland
Also called hypophysis cerebri and is
located at the base of the brain.
Consist of the following:
Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) – has a
projection called pars tuberalis which
extends along the front of the pituitary
stalk to the brain.
Intermediate lobe (pars intermedia) – this
produces melanocytes
Posterior lobe (pars nervosa or neuro-
hypophysis) – largely made up of special
neurologlial cells (Pituicytes) and nerve
fibers derived from nerve cells in
hypothalamic nuclei
The Pituitary Gland
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS

ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
The Adenohypophysis secretes the following
hormones:
Hormone Target Organ Function
Growth Throughout the Stimulates growth and
Hormone or body development
Somatotropic *Gigantism, dwarfism,
Hormone (STH) acromegaly

Adrenocorticotro Adrenal cortex Triggers secretion of

pic Hormone hydrocortisone from
(ACTH) the adrenal

Thyroid Thyroid gland Triggers secretion of

Stimulating thyroid hormones
Hormone (TSH)
The Adenohypophysis . . . .

Hormone Target Organ Function

Prolactin or Mammary gland Stimulates milk
Luteotropic secretion in lactating
Hormone (LTH) mammary gland
Follicle Sex organs Female - stimulates
Stimulating (ovaries and egg maturation
Hormone (FSH) testes) Male – stimulates
sperm production
Luteinizing Sex organs Female – stimulates
Hormone (LH) (ovaries and ovulation
testes) Male – stimulates
testosterone secretion
 Pars Intermedia secretes:

Hormone Target Organ Function

Melanocyte Skin Controls skin
Stimulating pigmentation
Hormone (MSH)
The Neurohypophysis secretes the following
hormones:
Hormone Target Organ Function
Oxytocin Uterus and Triggers contraction of
Mammary glands the uterus during labor
Stimulates milk
letdown for breast-
feeding after childbirth
Vasopressin or Kidneys Regulates water
Antidiuritic retention and blood
Hormone (ADH) pressure
The Adrenals
Also called suprarenal glands in man
It is located close to the kidney
Each adrenal gland consists of:
outer zone (the cortex)
inner zone (the medulla)
Adrenal glands
The Adrenal Cortex secretes the following
hormones:
Hormone Target Organ Function
Aldosterone Kidneys Regulates sodium and
potassium levels in
the blood to control
blood pressure
Hydrocortisone Throughout the Plays key role in
body stress response;
increases blood
glucose levels and
mobilizes fat stores;
reduces inflammation
The Adrenal Medulla secretes the following
hormones:
Hormone Target Organ Function
Epinephrine Muscles and Increases blood
blood vessels pressure, heart and
metabolic rate, and
blood sugar levels;
dilates blood vessels.
Also released during
exercise.
Norepinephrine Muscles and Increases blood
blood vessels pressure and heart
rate; constricts blood
vessels.
The Thyroid Gland
Consist of two lobes located near the
thyroid cartilage of the larynx.
Microscopically, it consists of colloid
materials mainly protein-iodine complex
called thyroglobulin.
The Thyroid Gland
 Hormone Target Organ Function
Thyroxine (T4) Throughout the Increases the basal
body metabolic rate (BMR)
of an individual
Triiodothyronine Throughout the Stimulates the oxygen
(T3) body consumption of most
of the cells in the
body, helps regulate
lipid and carbohydrate
metabolism and is
necessary for normal
growth and maturation
Calcitonin Bones Controls the level of
calcium in the blood
Lack of thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism)
causes:
• Dwarf condition (cretinism)
• Delayed puberty
• Irregular estrus
• Decreased fertility in females
• Decreased spermatogenesis, testicular
growth and semen quality
Excess thyroid hormone (hyperthyroidism)
causes:
• Increased metabolic rate
• Loss of weight with normal or increased
appetite
• Irritability
• Nervousness
• Protrusion of the eyeball (exophthalmos)
in man
Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter)
due to iodine deficiency and certain drugs
(sulfonamides) and vegetables (cabbage,
soybeans, peas, peanuts and lentils)
containing compounds called goitrogens
or antithyroid compounds.
The Parathyroid
Glands
These are
small nodules
located within or
near the thyroid
gland
 Hormone Target Organ Function
Parathyroid Bones, intestines Mobilizes calcium
Hormone (PTH) and kidneys from bone and
increases urinary
phosphate excretion,
thus in effect
increases blood
calcium level.
•Osteomalacia
•Rickets
•Osteoporosis
The Gonads
Gonads are sex glands/organs (ovaries
and testes)
 Hormone Target Organ Function
Testosterone Throughout the Causes sexual
body development and
growth spurt;
maintains proper
functioning of male
reproductive system
Estrogen Female Causes sexual
Reproductive development and
System growth; maintains
proper functioning of
female reproductive
system
Progesterone Mammary glands Prepares uterus for
and uterus pregnancy
 The
Cardiovascular
System
The Organs of Circulation
The Heart
Central pumping organ located in the
mediastinal space of the thoracic cavity opposite
the 3rd and 4th ribs.
Partially surrounded by serus sac, the
pericardium which:
* prevents overditation of the heart
* provides smooth surface for heart’s
action
* holds the heart in fixed position
* assists in the relaxation of the heart
Layers of the heart
Epicardium
Myocardium
Endocardium
Chambers – separated by septum
Right and left atria
Right and left ventricles
Valves of the heart
Atrio-ventricular (A-V) valves
The left is bicuspid
The right is tricuspid
Semilunar (S-L) valves – prevent blood from
returning into the ventricles
Aortic S-L valve
Pulmonary S-L valve
The Blood Vessels
Arteries and arterioles – carry blood away from
the heart
Veins and venules - carry blood toward the
heart
Capillaries – tiny tubes acting as selective
membranes which lie between the arteries
and veins
The Lymph vessels or Lymphatics
Carry tissue fluid and lymph
Consist of:
Longer lymph vessels (thoracic duct and right
lymphatic duct)
Lymph capillaries

The Lymph glands

Filtration of lymph fluids and production of
lymphocytes
The Blood
Composed of the following:
Plasma – fluid portion of blood
Corpusles – the red and white blood cells

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Non-nucleated
Biconcave circular disc
Contains hemoglobin for transport of oxygen
and red color
White blood cells (Leukocytes)
Nucleated
Independent movement
Classified as:
Granulocytes – Neutrophils,
Eosinophils, Basophils
Agranulocytes – Monocytes,
Lymphocytes
Functions of blood:
1. Conveys nutrients to the tissues
2. Carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs
3. Carries waste products to excretory organs
4. Transport hormones to target organs
5. Helps control body temperature
6. Helps maintain water balance
7. Helps maintain constant pH in tissues/fluids
8. Aids in overcoming diseases
The Pulse
Pulse is a wave of dilation of an artery as
blood flows into it.

Pulse rate is determined by:

1. Pressing superficial artery with thumb.
2. Use of stethoscope
Factors affecting pulse rate:
1. Age
2. Excitement
3. Muscular exercise
4. High environmental temperature
5. Digestion of food
6. Sleep
7. Disease / illness
Take pulse rate at:
1. External maxillary artery – for horse,
cattle and carabao
2. Femoral artery – for sheep, goat, dog
and cat
Tachycardia – considerable increase in
pulse rate/heart rate
Bradycardia – considerable decrease in
pulse rate/heart rate
The Lymphatic
System
The components of the lymphatic
system:
1. Lymphoid tissues
2. Lymph vessels
It is also made up of the following:
Lymph
a liquid lying between the tissues and
the blood vessels (capillaries)
few red corpusles and lymphocytes
low protein content
high in bicarbonates and chlorides
slightly higher pH than plasma
colorless fluid with specific gravity of 1:015
Lymph nodes
a lymph gland through which the lymph
passes
it produces lymphocytes and filters
extraneous bodies
Functions of the lymphatic system:
1. For draining tissue fluids
2. Assists in the control of interstitial fluid
pressure
3. Acts as defense mechanism against
noxious materials
The Respiratory
System
Importance
1. Involves exchange of gases between the
blood and the external environment
2. Animals may survive for days without
food but only for minutes without oxygen
The respiratory organs/apparatus
Nostrils/nares
external openings for air passages
Nasal cavity
opens externally at nostrils and
communicates with pharynx thru posterior
Pharynx or throat
a common passage for air and food
Larynx or voice box
consists of five cartilages:
cricoid
arytenoid (2)
thyroid
epiglottis

Trachea or windpipe
connects larynx with lungs
divides into bronchi which form smaller
(bronchioles)
Lungs
cone-shaped structure with base resting
against the cranial side of the diaphragm and
the apex within or close to thoracic inlet
divided into lobes:
apical (cranial)
cardiac (middle)
Diaphragmatic (caudal)
intermediate lobe (right lung)

[Note: Lungs of horses have no subdivisions, except for

intermediate lobe]
Regulation of respiration
Involves both external and internal
respiration
External respiration – the thin membranes of
the alveolar wall and capillaries facilities
the movement of oxygen into the blood
and movement of carbon dioxide into the
alveolar air (exchange of gasses between
the environment and the lungs).
Internal respiration – oxygen from the blood is
diffused to the tissues for cellular oxidation and
the resulting carbon dioxide diffuses into the
blood (exchange of gases between the blood
and tissues).
The process involves the following:
Inspiration – the taking in of O2 into the lungs
accomplished by enlargement of the thorax
(contraction of the diaphragm and movement of
ribs)
Expiration – the outflow of air from the lungs
accomplished by the passive return of lungs and
thorax to normal position.
Forms of respiration
1. Apnea – no respiration
2. Eupnea – normal quiet respiration
3. Dyspnea – difficult respiration
4. Hyperpnea – increased depth or rate of breathing or
both
5. Polypnea – rapid, shallow breathing
6. Coastal/thoracic breathing – considerable movement
of ribs
7. Abdominal/diaphragmatic breathing – visible
movement of abdomen
The Urinary
System
Importance
1. Responsible for excretion of many waste
products of the body
2. Important factor in maintenance of
homeokinesis (homeostasis), the relatively
constant condition of the internal environment
of the body.
3. Filtration of large quantities of plasma and
small molecules through the glomerulus
The Organs of Urination
Kidneys
Located in the dorsal wall of the abdomen
Secrete urine
Vary in shape among different species:
Cattle Lobulated
Sheep/goat bean-shaped
Hog bean-shaped
Horse equilateral triangle (right
kidney), bean-
shaped (left kidney)
Excrete metabolic waste products
Ureters
Tube that convey urine to urinary bladder,
near its neck called trigone.
Urinary bladder (absent in avian species)
Located in the pelvic floor
Reservoir for urine
Urethra
Common passage for urine and semen
Urine Formation
Theories of urine secretion:
1. Bowman-Heidenhain’s theory
“Urine is formed by specific secretory
activity of kidney cells, e.g. cells of
glomeruli capsule secrete water and salt;
cells of renal tubule secrete most of
solids of urine (urea, uric acid).”
2. Ludwig’s Theory
“Glomeruli acts as simple filter and tubule
forms urine by returning the water to the
blood”
3. Cushny’s Modern Theory
“Glomeruli acts as filter and renal tubule
makes filtrate concentrated by selective
absorption – the liquid containing the
rejected substance is the urine.”
 The
Reproductive
System
Importance
Knowledge of the reproductive system makes
efficient reproduction of animal species
The female reproductive system
Ovaries
primary organ of reproduction
produce ova
secrete female hormone estrogen and
progesterone
The reproductive system of a mare
The reproductive system of a cow
Reproductive system of sow
Uterine or Fallopian Tubes (oviduct, salpinx)
convulated tubes which conduct the ova from
the ovary to the horn of uterus.
serve as the site of fertilization
Uterus
seat of fetal development
consists of:
-cervix (neck)
-corpus (body)
-cornua (horns)
Types of uterus:
Duplex – two cervices, no uterine body,
horns are completely separated (e.g.
rat,mice, rabbit, guinea pig).
Bicornuate – one cervix, uterine body small
(e.g. pig)
Simplex – one cervix, body very
prominent, horns absent (e.g. primates,
humans).
Vagina
copulatory organ
divided into:
- vestibule – outermost part
- posterior vagina – extends from the urethral
opening to the cervix
Vulva or urogenital sinus
external portion of the female genitalia
the ventral commissure of the vulva conceals
conceals the clitoris, a very sensitive organ
The Male Reproductive System
Testes
male generative organ
produces sperm cells in the seminiferous
tubules
secrete hormone testosterone in the interstitial
cells or cells of leydig
contained in the scrotum; the thermoregulatory
organ
[NOTE: Failure of the testes to descend into the
scrotal sac is referred to as cryptorchidism]
Epididymis
long tube connecting the efferent duct of the
testis with vas deferens.
consists of head, body and tail
functions:
- maturation of sperm cells
- storage of sperm cells
- passageway for sperm cells
- makes sperm cells concentrated by absorbing
some fluids.
Vas/ductus deferens
connects tail of epididymis to the ejaculatory
duct
serves as passageway for sperm cells at
ejaculation.
Penis
male copulatory organ, made up of erectile
tissues
the free end is protected by a sheath or prepuce
in certain species (e.g. bull, buck, ram and
boar), the penis presents a sigmoid flexure
which makes it possible for the penis to
lengthen.
Urethra
found inside the penis
common passage for semen and urine
Accessory sex glands
ampullae – enlargement of the end of vas
deferens which contributes fluid to semen
(absent in boars)
seminal vesicles – located dorsal to the
urinary bladder which add volume to the semen
(absent in dogs)
 prostate gland – more or less completely
surrounding the pelvic urethra which
produces alkaline secretions giving semen
its characteristic odor (unpaired glands).
bulbourethral or cowper’s gland –
found on each side of the pelvic urethra;
its secretion given alkaline reaction that
neutralizes and prepares the urethra for
the passage of sperm cells.
Puberty and Estrus Cycle
1. Puberty – the age of first breeding
potential or when gametes are already
produced.
2. Estrus cycle – the period from the
beginning of one heat to the beginning of
the next heat
Types of Estrus:
Proestrus – the vaginal wall thickens
- increased vascularity of the uterine
mucosa
- maximum follicular growth
Estrus – female accepts the male in act of mating
- graafian follicles are mature and released from the
ovary
Metestrus – uterus makes preparations for pregnancy
- corpus luteum formation and secretion of progesterone
Diestrus – the longest phase
- corpus luteum is fully developed (1st part) and regress if
no pregnancy
Pregnancy and parturition
1. Pregnancy – is the time in which the female
carries her developing young within the uterus
(also called gestation) until delivery.
the fertilized ovum gets its food from the yolk
and uterine secretions (uterine milk) until
implantation occurs in the uterus
implantation varies (e.g. 10-18 days after
fertilization in the ewe, 12-24 days in the cow
and 30-60 days in the mare.
delayed implantation also occurs in some wild
animals, like the weasel (mating occurs in
summer, implantation occurs in late winner).
2. Parturition – the act of giving birth to young
by the mother
- it is theorized that the growing fetus
causes a distention of the uterus and an
increased pressure on the cervix, resulting
in parturition
- proper hormonal balance is responsible
for the onset of parturition.
Lactation
1. Lactation or milk production is associated with
parturition
2. Immediately prior to parturition, colostrum
synthesis is initiated and the udder begins to
enlarge greatly
3. Milk secretion is a continuous process and is
reversible
4. Factors affecting lactation:
Factors affecting lactation:
1. Inheritance or genetic constitution of the
animal
2. Secreting tissue (udder size)
3. Stage and persistency of lactation
4. Frequency of milking
5. Age
6. Animal size
7. Estrus
8. Disease
9. Dry period
10. Body condition at parturition
11. Environmental temperature
12. Feed
13. Preparation for milking
14. Stress
15. Suckling stimulus
The Digestive
System
The Digestive System of Monogastric Animals
1. Mouth – responsible for prehension and
grinding of food, consists of the following:
a. teeth (temporary and permanent)
b. tongue
c. lips
d. cheeks
e. jaws
f. palates
2. Pharynx – common passage for food and air
3. Esophagus – direct continuation of the pharynx
to the stomach
4. Stomach – A large dilatation of the alimentary
canal behind the diaphragm, consists of four
regions
a. esophageal – no secretions
b. cardiac – secretes mucus
c. fundic – secretes HCl and enzymes
d. pyloric – secretes enzymes
5. Small intestine – Main site of absorption
of food nutrients, consists of the following
parts:
a. duodenum – first part (digestion)
b. jejunum – middle part (absorption)
c. ileum – last part (absorption)
6. Large instestine - contains undigested
feed and residues of digestive juices,
consists of the following parts:
a. cecum – a blind sac
b. colon – ascending colon, transverse
colon, descending colon
The Digestive System of a Pig
The Digestive System of a Horse
The Digestive System of Ruminant Animals
Ruminants differ from monogastrics in that they
have compound stomach rather than simple.

The stomach has four compartments, namely:

a. rumen (paunch) – no secretions
b. reticulum (honeycomb) – no secretions
c. omasum (manyflies) – no secretions
d. Abomasum (true stomach) – secretes HCl
and enzymes.
The Digestive System of Avian Species

1. Mouth – no lips and cheeks but beak, no

teeth, tongue is narrow and pointed
2. Pharynx – Opens into esophagus
3. Gullet (esophagus) – presents a large
diverticulum (crop) at the entrance of the
thorax
4. Stomach – a large dilation of the
alimentary canal behid the diaphragm,
consists of four regions:
a. Proventriculus – glandular portion
b. Gizzard – muscular portion
5. Small Intestine – duodenum forms a loop
6. Large intestine – consist of
a. caeca
b. colon
c. cloaca – parts of cloaca:
c.a coprodeum – place where colon
empties
c.b urodeum – place where ureters and
genital ducts open
c.c proctodeum – opens to bursa o
fabricus dorsally
7. Accessory organs of digestion
a. salivary glands – produces saliva and
enzyme
b. pancreas – produces enzymes and
hormones
c. liver – secretes bile which is stored in
gall bladder

[NOTE: horses have no gall bladder)

Avian Digestive System
 The
Integumentary
System
The Skin- external covering of the body
continuous with the exterior membranes of the
respiratory, urogenital and digestive tracts.
Functions of skin:
1. Protection of sensitive tissues
2. Prevents the penetration of toxic liquids and
gases
3. Protects the body from the adverse effects of
light
4. Regulates body temperature
5. Contains ergosterol which helps from
Vitamin D
6. Organ of touch
7. Prevents delicate tissues from drying.
Layers of skin:
1. Epidermis or cuticle – no blood vessels
2. Dermis or corium – with blood vessels,
nerves, hair follicles, muscle fibers and glands
Glands of the skin:
1. Sweat glands (sudoriferous) – eliminate
body wastes and cool off the body
2. Sebaceous glands – secrete oily substances
(sebum) that lubricates hair and skin.
[NOTE: Cerumen – a kind of sebum in the ear
(wax) that discourages insects and prevents
passage of foreign bodies.
The Appendages
1. Hair – general surface covering of the
animal body
2. Hoof – horny covering of the distal end
of the digit, cloven hooves (e.g. cattle,
carabao, goat, etc), solid hooves (e.g.
horse and some swine)
3. Horns – encloses the horn processes of
the frontal bone
The Receptive
System
The General Senses
1. Sight or vision (visus) – consist of the
eyes and its accessory organs
2. Hearing (auditus) – consist of:
a. external ear (Auris externa)
* Auricola – collects sound waves
* External accoustic meatus –
conveys the sound waves to tympanic
membrane.
b. Middle ear (Auris media)
* Tympanic cavity – communicates
with the pharynx
* Eustachian tube – transmit air to
the former
* Guttural pouches – communicate
with the pharynx through the pharyngeal
orifice of the eustachian tube.
c. Inner ear (Auris interna)
* A complex membrane sac –
supports the auditory cells and the
peripheral ramification of the auditory
nerve.
* A series of cavities in the petrous
temporal bone which encloses the
membranous parts.
3. Smell (Olfactus) – consists of the nose
and nasal cavity as the olfactory region.
4. Taste (Gustus) – formed by the
microscopic taste buds.
5. Pain or touch
- Pain is received by naked terminal branches of
sensory neurons
- Nerve endings respond to all intense stimuli
- Sensation of pain is a natural protective means
of alerting the body to prevent further damage to
body tissues.
- The pain receptors are often called nociceptors,
from the latin word noceo, meaning to injure.
The Special Senses
1. Proprioception – Also called muscle
sense which indicates the relative
positions of various parts of the body
without using the eyes. Sense of position
is important in physical activities such as
walking, running, fighting and grazing.
2. Myelination and spinal tracts of
peripheral sensory nerves – Tendency
of nerve fibers carrying impulses for touch,
pain, heat or cold to be grouped in specific
tracts of the spinal cord.
3. Visceral sensations – Involves structure
within the body cavities. Organic
sensations such as hunger, thirst, sexual
and sensations of bladder fullness are
carried by visceral afferent nerves.
 Body
Temperature
Regulation
 Homeotherms vs. Poikilotherms
1. Homeotherms - [warm-blooded animals
(e.g. mammals)] – also called
endotherms which maintain their internal
temperature constant in the face of
widely changing external temperature.
2. Poikilotherms – [cold-blooded animals
(e.g. frogs, crocodiles, etc) – also called
ectotherms which has the ability to adapt
themselves to variations in their
environmental temperatures.
 Process of heat dissipation
1. Conduction – based on the principle that
heat flows between warm and cold
objects.
Factors affecting conduction:
a. Contact of animals and other objects
b. Temperature gradient of objects
c. Thermal conductivity
2. Convection – A mechanism by which
heat is transmitted from one molecule to
another by physical contact.
Factors affecting convection:
a. Body surface area
b. Velocity of air movement
c. Temperature of animals’ surface
d. Ambient air temperature
3. Evaporation - most important means of heat
dissipation during severe heat exposure.
Factors affecting evaporation:
a. Temperature and moisture of the skin
b. Skin covering (hair, wool, feathers)
c. Humidity, velocity, and temperature of
surrounding air
d. Respiratory rate and volume
e. Water available for evaporation
f. Surface area of the animal
4. Cooling in non-sweating species
a. Moisture loss by osmosis from the skin is
very little
b. The moisture lost from the body is called
insensible perspiration
c. Accomplish evaporative cooling by
panting (e.g. birds and dogs).
5. Radiation – a means of heat loss from animals
to cooler objects and heat gained by animals
from warmer ones.
Factors influencing heat loss by radiation
a. surface area of the animal
b. temperature of animals’ skin
c. temperature of air surrounding the animal
d. emissivity of the animals’ skin (ability to
absorb and emit heat).
 Physiological responses to heat and cold
1. Responses to heat
- sweating
- increased respiratory activity
- increased skin circulation (vasodilation)
- change in temperature gradient
- cooler environment
- increased air movement
- increased radiating surface
- increased insensible water loss
- basal heat loss (conduction, convection, radiation,
vaporization)
2. Responses to cold
- exercise
- shivering
- increased secretion of adrenaline and thyroxine
- vasoconstriction
- erection of hair
- unconscious tensing of muscles
- higher metabolic rate
- fever
- increased food intake
- basal heat production (carbohydrates, fats, protein)
3. Another way of creating a balance in cold
weather is to reduce heat loss by:
- reduced vaporization (no sweating)
- lower respiratory rate
- shunting blood (surface to interior)
- huddling
- production of warm coats (feather, hair, etc. )
- deposition of subcutaneous fats.
That’s all for now.