Chapter3 PDF

CHAPTER 3
Voltage Regulators
EEE 1046 T2230 2022/2023
Zubaida Yusoff (zubaida@mmu.edu.my) The information in this work has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable. The author does not
guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information presented herein, and shall not be responsible
Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University for any errors, omissions or damages as a result of the use of this information.
Version: August 2023
Voltage Regulators
■ Objectives:
– Describe the basic concept of voltage regulation
– Study the principle of basic series pass regulator and shunt
regulator
– Study the operation of series pass feedback regulator
– Discuss the protection schemes for series pass regulator
– Discuss the integrated circuit voltage regulator
– Describe the basic idea of heat dissipation
Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 2

Intro: DC Power Supply
■ DC voltage can be obtained from AC voltage source through several
stages, as shown below:
Transformer Rectifier Filter

Intro: DC Power Supply
■ As the output voltage from the rectifier (already a DC voltage) has
a very large variation, it can be smoothened by using a filter
■ Though the output from the filter is considerably smooth, the
resultant ripple voltage is still not acceptable for most DC
applications
■ A regulated DC power supply, which provides constant DC
voltage, can be constructed by using a voltage regulator
Transformer Rectifier Filter Voltage Regulator

Voltage Regulation
■ Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:
– Line regulation
– Load regulation
■ The purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly constant
output voltage when the input voltage varies.
■ The purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly constant
output voltage when the load varies.

Line Regulation
■ A change in input (line) voltage does not significantly affect the
output voltage of a regulator (within certain limits)

Line Regulation
■ Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output
voltage for a given change in the input voltage. [Unit: %]
x100%
■ Line regulation,
VO
where
VS = variation in the output voltage
= variation in the input voltage
■ Line regulation can also be specified in term of the percentage change in
the output voltage for every volt change in the source voltage. [Unit: %/V]
VO
VO ( nom )
 100%
■ Line regulation = VS [unit: %/V]
VO
where = variation in the output voltage
VS
VO (nom ) = variation in the input voltage
= nominal regulated output voltage at max load
Load Regulation
■ A change in load current has practically no effect on the output
voltage of a regulation (within certain limits)

Load Regulation
■ Load regulation can be expressed as the percentage change in output
voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL)
■ Load regulation = VNL V FL
 100%
VFL
where VNL = load voltage with no load current

VFL = load voltage with full load current
■ VNL occurs when the load current is zero, and
■ VFL occurs when the load current is the maximum value for the
design

Load Regulation
■ Sometimes the equivalent Thevenin resistance of a voltage supply is
specified in place of a load regulation specification.
■ In this case, VOUT can be found by applying the voltage divider rule:
■ In terms of resistance, loas regulation can be expressed as:

Types of Voltage Regulators
■ Two fundamental classes of voltage regulators are:
– Linear regulators
– Switching regulators
■ Two types of regulators: shunt and series regulator
Series regulator Shunt regulator

■ The series regulator is connected in series with the load and;
■ The shunt regulator is connected in parallel with the load.
■ Two types of regulators: shunt and series regulator
RS
VS VS Q1
VZ + R +
Unregulated Unregulated
power RL Vo power RL Vo
Q1
supply supply
௅ ௅
Shunt regulator Series regulator

Key Components
■ Before begin, you should understand the functions of the ‘key’
components:
1. Zener diode ( provided reference/fixed voltage)
2. Transistor (current control devices)
Zener Diode: Transistor:
VZ
IC
VR IZK
IC IE = IB
IZT Zz
IB
When IB↑, IC ↑
Vz
IZM
VZ IR IE
ZZ 
I Z
Zener equivalent circuit
VZ is the change in VZ

Shunt Regulator
■ In a regulated power supply, a voltage regulator is used to provide a
predetermined DC voltage Vo.
■ The voltage Vo is not affected by the current IL drawn by the load,
temperature nor the variation in the AC line voltage.
■ The simplest shunt regulator isI the Zener
I regulator.
VZ RS S L
VO  VZ Basic Idea
VR IZK IZ + VS  VO
IS  Vo = I LRL
VS Vz RL Vo RS
IZT
௅ VO RL ↑, IL ↓, IZ↑
IL 
IZM RL
I S = I Z↑ + I L↓
IR I Z  I S I L
■ In the reverse breakdown region, the voltage across the diode will
vary just a little even though the Zener current may vary substantially
RS
Shunt Regulator VS Vz RL Vo
௅
■ When the load current changes (due to the variation in load), the
Zener current increases or decreases to keep the load voltage
constant.
■ Hence, the current through RS is kept constant.
■ This type of regulator is known as shunt regulator as the regulating
device (Zener diode) is in parallel with the load.
■ In shunt regulator, a change in the load current is complemented by
an opposing change in the shunt current.
■ E.g. if the load current increases by 1mA, the shunt current decreased
by 1mA, and vice-versa.
■ Hence, in a shunt regulator, the input current is almost constant when
the input voltage is constant, i.e. a change in the load current has
almost no effect on the input current.

Shunt Regulator
■ However, the Zener regulator is not efficient at large load current.
■ If the variation in the load current is large, the corresponding
changes in the Zener current will also be large.
■ This large variation in Zener current will result in a significant
changes in the voltage drop across the Zener diode due to the
considerably large voltage drop in the Zener resistance.
VZ
VR IZK
IZT
IZM
IR

Improved Shunt Regulator
■ An improved shunt regulator is shown below:
VZ RS IS IL VO  VZ  VBE Basic Idea

VR IZK VS  VO
IC + IS  RL ↑, IB↑
VZ RS
IZT VS RL Vo
Q1 VO IC↑, IL↓
IB ௅ IL 
IZM RL
IB = I Z
IR
I C  I S I L
■ In this regulator, regulation is controlled by the Zener diode through
the transistor
■ When the output voltage tries to increases (larger load), the increase
is coupled through the Zener diode to the base of the transistor

■ The larger base voltage results in an increase in the base current,
which produces larger collector current
■ As more current flows through the transistor, the current through the
load is reduced and the attempted increase in the output voltage is
offset by the larger shunt current
■ On the other hand, when the output tries to decreases (with lower
load), the decrease is coupled through the Zener diode to the base of
the transistor
■ The smaller base voltage reduces the base current and hence results
in a smaller collector current
■ As less current can now flow through the transistor, more current
flows through the load to offset the attempted decrease in the output
voltage

■ Though simpler to implement, shunt regulators are generally less
efficient due to larger power lost in the series resistor RS and the
transistor
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 , 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 , η= × 100 %
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 , 𝑃𝑖𝑛
■ E.g. If the Zener operating current is 10mA (the base current) and the
transistor has a hFE of 100, with an output regulated voltage of 5V
(VCE of the transistor), the power dissipated in the transistor, PD can
be as high as
PD  hFE I B  VCE  5W

Series Regulator – Series Pass Regulator
■ When higher efficiency is desired, a series regulator can be used
■ The simplest series regulator is the series pass transistor regulator
(Zener follower) as shown below:
Basic Idea
VS Q1 VE
IL VZ  VO  VBE VO↑, IZ↑, IB↓,
R IB VB +
Unregulated VO
power RL Vo IL 
supply RL IC=IL↓
IZ ௅
PD  V SVO I L
VZ
assume IE≈ IC
■ The transistor is used as a voltage follower or emitter follower
(common collector configuration)
■ Since VBE is almost constant (though it decreases with temperature
by about 2.5mV/K), the voltage at the emitter VE is equal to the
voltage at the base minus VBE
Series Pass Regulator
■ If the base voltage VB is stable (constant), the output voltage Vo = VE
will be constant, independent of IL, temperature and the unregulated
supply voltage
■ The most common technique to obtain a stable reference voltage is
again by using a Zener diode
■ If the line voltage VS is too high (or low), IZ could become too large
(or small) that VB becomes substantially higher (or lower) than the
desired value
■ The specification/parameter of a regulated power supply that
characterizes it stability against the variation in supply voltage is the
line regulation or source regulation (or input regulation factor)

■ The load current IL is approximately equal to (1 + hFE)IB
■ If IL is large, IB will be proportionally large and shunt away a large
portion of the Zener current IZ
■ Thus, an exceedingly large IL will result in IZ, which may be smaller
than the Zener knee current IZK
■ In this case, the Zener diode will no longer work in the reverse
breakdown region and VB will become lower than the rated Zener
voltage VZ
■ The specification/parameter that characterizes the stability against the
variation in load current is the load regulation

■ In normal operation, VB = VZ
■ The current flowing through resistor R is
VS V Z
IR   IZ  IB
R
■ For a fixed VS (and also VZ), IR is a fixed value

■ When IB increases, IZ will decrease
■ In order to get a good regulation, IZ must be larger than a minimum
value IZK over the rated range of load current
VS Q1 VE
IL
R IB VB +
Unregulated
power RL Vo
supply IZ VZ ௅

Series Pass Regulator - Example
■ The voltage from an unregulated power supply may vary from 12V
(at full load) to 16 (at no load). A power transistor with a maximum
rating of 1A is to be used as the pass transistor of a 9V regulator. The
minimum hFE of the transistor is 25. The required maximum load
current is 500mA. Design the series voltage regulator, given that the
Zener knee current is 10mA and the base-emitter voltage of the
transistor is 0.7V.
■ Solution:
VS Q1 VE
Given VBE = 0.7V
IL
R IB VB +
From Vo = VZ – VBE → VZ = 9.7VUnregulated
power RL Vo
supply
The maximum base current, IZ VZ ௅
I L (max)
I B (max)   20mA
hFE
Series Pass Regulator - Example
■ When the base current is at its maximum, the Zener current is at its
minimum and it must be at least equal to IZK = 10mA
■ Hence, IR = IZK + IB(max) = 30mA
■ As the load current is at its maximum (full load), the supply voltage
is VS(min) = 12V
VS (min)  VZ 12  9.7
R    76.7
IR 0.03
VS Q1 VE
IL
R IB VB +
Unregulated
power RL Vo
supply IZ VZ ௅

■ The power dissipation of the pass transistor in the previous example
is
PD  VCE I C
 VS  VO I L
 12  9 0.5  1.5W
■ If this power, which is in the form of heat, is not properly transferred

away from the pn junction, the temperature of the transistor will rise.
■ This may degrade the power rating of the transistor and may
eventually cause permanent damage to the transistor due to
overheating.

■ Heat sink can be used for efficient dissipation of heat into the air
■ In some extreme cases, forced-air cooling can be used
■ The increase in temperature causes VBE to decrease
■ This in turn increases the output voltage [since Vo = VZ – VBE]
■ The specification that characterizes the stability of the regulator
against the changes in the pass transistor temperature is the
temperature coefficient
VO
Temperatur e coefficient, ST 
T
■ Hence, the total variation in the regulated output voltage Vo is a
function of supply voltage VS, load current IL, and temperature T
VO  SV VS  S R I L  ST T

■ When IL increase, IB will increase, causing IZ to decrease and vice-
versa
■ The changes in the load current IL is related to the changes in IB by
1
I B  I L
hFE
■ Hence, for the same magnitude of change in IL, the change in IB can
be minimized by using a transistor with larger hFE
■ As change in IB is minimized, the change in IZ will also be minimized

Regulator Efficiency
■ One way to compare regulators of different designs is by using
efficiency, defined as
Pout
Efficiency   100%
Pin
where Pout = load power (VoIL)

Pin = input power (VSIS)
■ The difference between Pin and Pout is Preg, the power wasted in the
regulator components
Preg  Pin  Pout

Regulator Efficiency
■ Comparing the efficiency of shunt regulator and series regulator:
■ Both regulators below are used to provide a regulated output voltage
Vo of 5V. The nominal source voltage VS is 12V. Both Zener diodes
have IZK of 10mA, both transistors have hFE of 100, and RL = 100 Ω.
RS
VS VS Q1
VZ + R +
Unregulated Unregulated
power RL Vo power RL Vo
Q1
supply supply
௅ ௅

Shunt Regulator Efficiency
■ Consider the shunt regulator
V 5 RS
VS
IL  O   50mA
RL 100 +
Unregulated VZ
Pout  VO I L  0.25W power RL Vo
Q1
supply
I B  I ZK  10mA ௅
I C  hFE I B  1A
I S  I C  I B  I L  1.06 A
Pin  VS I S  12.72W
Preg  Pin  Pout  12.47W
Pout
Efficiency   100%  1.965%
Pin

Series Regulator Efficiency
■ Consider the series regulator
V 5 VS Q1
IL  O   50mA
RL 100 R +
Unregulated
Pout  VO I L  0.25W power RL Vo
supply
IL ௅
IB   0.5mA
hFE
I R  I B  I Z  10.5mA
I S  I R  I C  60.5mA
Pin  VS I S  0.726W
Preg  Pin  Pout  0.476W
Pout
Efficiency   100%  34.43%
Pin
Series Feedback Regulator
■ A series feedback regulator gives better load regulation
■ This regulator consists of 4 essential elements:
– Control element
– Error detector/amplifier
– Reference voltage
– Sampling network
■ The block diagram of a basic series pass feedback regulator is shown below:
Control
Vin Vout
element
Reference Error Sampling

voltage detector network

■ Basic operation of the regulator:
i. Error detector compares a reference voltage with a sample of
the output voltage
ii. Error detector sends appropriate signal to a control element
iii. The control element causes the output voltage to increase or
decrease until the sample voltage equals the reference
iv. When error voltage is zero, the control element is held in a
stable state
v. Output voltage is thus kept relatively constant regardless of the
load requirement (within certain limits)

■ An op-amp is used as the error detector and amplifier in the series
pass feedback regulator below:
R2

R1  R2
VO  VZ
 R 
VO  1  1 VZ
 R2 
■ The output voltage can be adjusted by varying the feedback factor β

■ The emitter follower Q1 provides a high current gain and a unity
voltage gain, and acts as a buffer to deliver the required load current

■ A portion of the output voltage (the feedback voltage) is taken from
the voltage divider and applied to the inverting input of the op-amp
■ Any changes in the output voltage will cause a corresponding change
in the feedback voltage
■ The op-amp compares the feedback voltage βVo with the reference
voltage VZ and adjust its output VB until (VZ – βVo) is close to zero
■ At steady-state, VB = Vo + VBE
■ The choice of VZ is flexible as Vo can be any value larger than VZ
■ A diode (forward-biased) can even be used to provide a reference
voltage of 0.7V

■ Consider the circuit operation in 2 cases:
■ Case 1 – Load is reduced to a smaller
value
i. Load voltage drops and causes the
feedback voltage to decrease
ii. Lower feedback voltage creates
larger positive differential voltage
between the op-amp input
terminals
iii. Op-amp produces larger output
voltage to the base of the pass
transistor, allowing more current
to flow through the load and brings
the output voltage up to its
nominal value

■ Case 2 – Load is increased to a larger
value
i. Load voltage increases and causes
the feedback voltage to increase
ii. Higher feedback voltage creates
smaller positive differential
voltage between the op-amp input
terminals
iii. Op-amp produces smaller output
voltage to the base of the pass
transistor, reducing the current
flowing through the load and
brings the output voltage down to
its nominal value

■ A transistor may also be used as the error amplifier, as shown:
■ The output voltage is given by:

R1
VO  VZ  VBE 2  VO
R1  R2
 R1 
1  VO  VZ  VBE 2
 R1  R2 
 R 
 VO  VZ  VBE 2 1  1 
 R2 
■ The single transistor error detector (Q2) sense the differential voltage
between its base (VB2 = βVo) and emitter (VE2 = VZ) causing an immediate
changes in the base current of the pass transistor Q1
■ When the output voltage decreases (with smaller load), VB2 decreases and
the differential voltage is also reduced as VE2 is a constant reference
voltage
■ This results in a smaller base current and the collector current IC2 is
reduced
■ A smaller IC2 reduces the voltage drop across R3, causing the base voltage
of Q1 to increase
■ Consequently, the collector current of Q1 increases and bring the output
voltage back to its nominal value
■ If the output voltage increases, the opposite operation will take place to
bring the output voltage down to its nominal value
Example
■ A series feedback regulator with a regulated output voltage of 12V and a
rated load current of 1A is to be designed. The unregulated power supply has
a voltage VS = 18±3V. The pass transistor has a maximum rating of 2A and
hFE1(min)=125. The transistor acting as the error detector has a rating of
hFE(min)=400. A 5.6V Zener diode is used and it requires an operating current
of 10mA. Design the series feedback regulator as shown by determining the
required values of R, R1, R2 and R3.

■ A general design rule is to assume that half of the Zener current
comes from the source via resistor R
■ Thus, at minimum source voltage, the current through R must be at
least 5mA
V  VZ
From I R  S
R
15  5.6
R  1.88k
5mA
■ The emitter current of Q2 is
I E 2  I Z  I R  5mA

■ Another general design rule that can be applied is to assume that base
current of Q2 is normally very small, typically 100 times smaller than
the feedback current (only 1% of the feedback current)
■ Thus, the feedback current through R1 can be found from
I E 2 5mA
I B2    12.5A
hFE 400
I R1  100 I B 2  1.25mA
■ Hence, R1 can be calculated from
VO  VBE 2  VZ  12  0.7  5.6 

R1    4.56k
I R1 1.25mA

■ Current flowing through R2 will be
I R 2  I R1  I B 2  I R1  1.25mA
■ R2 can be found from

V  VZ 5.6  0.7
R2  BE 2   5.04k
I R2 1.25mA
■ Q1 emitter current is given by

I E1  I L  I R1  1.00125 A
■ Q1 base current is then given by

I 1.00125
I B1  E1   8.01mA
hFE1 125

■ The current IR3 through R3 will be
I R 3  I B1  I C 2  13.01mA
■ The value for R3 corresponding to VS=15V and IL=1A is

V  VO  VBE1  15  12  0.7 
R3  S   177
I R3 13.01mA

Current Limiter
■ A power supply must be protected against possible damage due to
overload/short-circuit.
■ Consider the basic series pass feedback regulator as shown given that
VS = 12V ,Q1 has a hFE of 100 and R3 = 1kΩ
■ If the load is accidentally shorted, transistor Q2 is OFF as IB2 is 0

■ Hence, all the current from R3 will go to the base of Q1

Current Limiter
■ Since the load is shorted, emitter voltage VE1 = 0
■ The base voltage of Q1 is
VB1  VE1  VBE1
VB1  VBE1  0.7V
■ The base current of Q1 is

V  VB 12  0.7
I B1  S   11 .3mA
R3 1k
■ The collector
I current
h I of 1Q.13
1 will
A be
C1 FE1 B1
■ The excessive collector current Ic1 might damaged Q1 if it is above the

current rating of Q1
Current Limiter
■ In simple circuits, protection can be provided by using a fuse
connected in series at the input of the regulator
■ In more sophisticated equipment, diode or transistor is used to
provide the overload or short-circuit protection
■ A common scheme to protect the regulator against excessive
overloading current is to limit the pass transistor current to a
maximum value
■ As the load current comes from the pass transistor, limiting the
transistor current will hence limit the load current
■ This protection scheme is often known as constant current limiting as
the pass transistor current will be limited to a constant value once the
maximum value is reached (as the load is reduced)

Current Limiter
■ Regulation will be lost if the load is further decreased, as the load
current can no longer be increased
■ A current limiter using 2 diodes is shown here
■ In normal condition, diodes D1 and D2 are not conducting

■ When the load current is too high that the voltage drops across R CS is
higher that the two diodes + VBE1 , diodes D1 and D2 will start to
conduct.
Current Limiter
■ As the load current is normally much larger than the feedback current
through R1, it is approximately equal to the pass transistor current
I R1  I L  I PT
I L  I PT
■ This assumption is valid as long as the output remains regulated
L max  IPT max  I

■ When the load is shorted, the load current becomes
VS  2V
I L SC   I PT max  
R3
■ is the diode voltage of 0.7V

Current Limiter
■ The current limiter can also be implemented using a transistor
■ For e.g., if a current limit of IL(max) = 500mA is required, RCS can be
calculated to be
𝑉 𝐵𝐸
𝑅 𝐶𝑆=
𝐼 𝐿 ¿¿ ¿

Current Limiter
■ In normal operation, Transistor Q3 is not conducting (OFF).
■ When the load current is too high that the voltage drop across R CS is
larger than 0.7V, Q3 will start conducting and shunt away the base
current of Q1
■ The required value of RCS is
VBE 3
RCS 
I L (max)
■ Under short circuit condition, the short-circuit current I SC is

VS  VBE1  VBE 3
I SC  I PT (max) 
R3

Current Limiter
■ The relationship between the output voltage and the load current (V o
vs. IL) is shown in the graph below:

Over Voltage Protection
■ Regulated power supply is occasionally protected against input over-
voltage condition
■ If the supply voltage is too high, the power dissipated at the pass
transistor may be too excessive, as VCE becomes larger
■ A crowbar circuit can be added between the unregulated power
Fuse
supply and the regulator
■ Under normal operation, the Zener diode is OFF

■ When VS > VZ, the Zener diode start to conducts

Over Voltage Protection
■ The voltage across RG will turn on the SCR when it is larger than
0.7V (VBE of the transistor of the SCR)
■ When the SCR in turned on, VS is short-circuited by the SCR and the
voltage regulator is protected
■ The SCR will continue to conduct until the unregulated power supply
fuses opens (not shown in the figure).
■ The fuse can be inserted to protect the unregulated power supply.

Linear IC Voltage Regulators
■ A wide variety of linear integrated circuit voltage regulators are
commercially available
■ Most of them are series regulators as series regulator is more
efficient than shunt regulator
■ These IC voltage regulators can be classified into 4 basic types:
i. Fixed-positive - provides predetermined positive dc voltage
ii. Fixed-negative - provides predetermined negative dc voltage
iii. Adjustable - provides any dc voltage within a specific range
iv. Dual tracking - provides equal +V and -V outputs that are
adjustable within a specific range

■ Considerations in selecting a suitable linear IC regulator for a
particular application:
i. Ease of use
ii. Number of external components required
iii. Reliable performance (proper rating)
iv. Internal thermal protection
v. Short-circuit protection
■ The 78XX series is one of the popular fixed voltage three terminal
voltage regulator
■ Aside from 2 optional bypass capacitor, these regulators require no
external component

■ Different power ratings are available in different IC packages. Some
examples:
Voltage 100mA 500mA 1.0A 3.0A
+5V LM78L05 LM78M05 LM7805 MC78T05
MC78L05 MC78M05 MC7805
+9V LM78L09 LM78M09 LM7809
MC78L09 MC78M09 MC7809
+12V LM78L12 LM78M12 LM7805 MC78T12
MC78L12 MC78M12 MC7805
+15V LM78L15 LM78M15 LM7805 MC78T15
MC78L15 MC78M15 MC7805
TO-92 TO-220 TO-3 SOT-223 D-PAK/D2PAK SOIC
■ The fixed-negative version of this three-terminal voltage regulator is

the 79XX series
■ The functional block diagram for the 78XX series is as shown
+Vin Pass transistor +Vout
+Vin LM78XX +Vout

R2'
Thermal
shutdown and Com
current limiting
വ
Error + Vref R1 '

Amplifier
Common
■ A built-in reference voltage Vref drives the non-inverting input of an

amplifier
■ A voltage divider consisting of R1’ and R2’ samples the output
voltage and returns a feedback voltage

■ The output voltage is given by
R1'  R2'
Vout  '
Vref
R1
■ Note that R1’ and R2’ are inside the IC, rather than being external
resistors
■ Current limiting and thermal shutdown protections are also included
■ Thermal shutdown is required so that the IC will shut itself off when
the internal temperature becomes too high
■ This is a precaution against excessive power dissipation, which
depends on the ambient temperature, type of heat sinking and other
variables

■ By combining a 78XX and 79XX, a regulated dual supplies can be
obtained
IN OUT
+15V LM7812 +12V
COM
GND GND
COM
-15V LM7912 -12V
IN OUT
■ A single dual tracking regulator can also be used to give equal

positive and negative output voltages
+18 to +30V +15V

inputs RC4192 outputs
-18 to -30V -15V

■ A number of IC regulators (LM317, LM337, LM338 & LM350) are
adjustable
■ For instance, the LM317 is a three-terminal positive voltage
regulator that can supply 1.5A of load current over an adjustable
range of 1.25V to 37V
■ It has an internal reference voltage of 1.25V
LM317
Vref R1
Iadj
Vin C1 C2 Vout
R2
■ C1 acts as a filter to the unregulated power supply

■ C2 is commonly used for the rejection of transients

■ The input-output voltage differential is:
3V < (Vin – Vout) < 40V
■ The datasheet of LM317 gives the output voltage as
 R  R2 
Vout   1 Vref  I adj R2
 R1 
■ where Vref = 1.25V and Iadj = 50μA
■ If the first term of the equation is larger than the second, the output
voltage expression can be simplified:
 R  R2 
Vout   1 1.25
 R1 

Heat Sink Design
■ At the pass transistor, the temperature rise at the collector junction is
proportional to the power dissipated at the junction
■ The transistor power dissipation PD is the same as the rate at which
heat flows out the junction
■ In thermodynamics, the rate of heat flow is analogous to current,
thermal resistance to resistance, and temperature to voltage
PD → current, θ → resistance, T → voltage
Power dissipation Thermal resistance Temperature
■ Using this analogy, Ohm’s law for thermodynamics can be written as

 TJ  TA 
PD   
  

Heat Sink Design
■ The thermal resistance is the resistance to heat flow between two
temperature points
■ It depends on the size of transistor, convection or radiation of heat to
the surrounding, forced air-cooling, and on the thermal connection of
the device to a metal chassis or a heat sink
■ The maximum collector power (power rating) PC allowed for safe
operation is specified at 25°C (room temperature)
■ At temperature above 25°C, the power rating have to be derated (e.g.
2N2222 derate above 25°C at 4.57mW/°C)
■ Heat sink is often used to improve the heat transfer from the
transistor as to obtain a higher power rating

Heat Sink Design
■ Heat flows from the junction to the case of the transistor, to the heat
sink and on to the surrounding air
■ As heat flows from the junction to the case, it encounters the thermal
resistance RJC
■ When it flows from the case to the heat sink, it passes through the
thermal resistance RCS and from the sink to the surrounding air, the
thermal resistance RSA Junction
Chip
TJ
RJC
Case
TC
RCS
Heat
TS
Sink RSA
TA
Ambient

Heat Sink Design
■ In the design of a heat sink, the required parameters are:
i. Power dissipation of the device, PD
ii. Maximum junction temperature, TJ
iii. Maximum ambient temperature, TA
iv. Junction-case thermal resistance, RJC
■ Items (ii) and (iv) are usually available from the datasheet
■ In addition, the method in which the device is mounted to the heat sink
affects the total thermal resistance
■ Common case-sink mounting methods are:
i. Dry (RCS = 0.25°C/W)
ii. Grease (RCS = 0.1°C/W)
iii. Dry with mica washer/insulator (RCS = 0.8°C/W)
iv. grease with mica washer/insulator (RCS = 0.4°C/W)
Heat Sink Design
■ The required heat sink thermal resistance can be calculated as
follows:
■ Total thermal resistance, RT   TJ  TA 

 P 
 D 
■ Required heat sink thermal resistance, RSA  RT  ( RCS  RJC )

■ Heat sink temperature, TS  TJ  ( RCS  RJC ) PD

■ The series regulator is connected in series with the load and;
■ The shunt regulator is connected in parallel with the load.
■ Control element in series with load between input and output.
■ Output sample circuit senses a change in output voltage.
■ Error detector compares sample
voltage with reference voltage →
causes control element to
compensate in order to maintain a
constant output voltage

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CHAPTER 3

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 2

Transformer Rectifier Filter

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 3

Transformer Rectifier Filter Voltage Regulator

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 4

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 5

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 6

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 8

where VNL = load voltage with no load current

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 9

■ In terms of resistance, loas regulation can be expressed as:

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 10

Series regulator Shunt regulator

Shunt regulator Series regulator

Zener Diode: Transistor:

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 13

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 15

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 16

VZ RS IS IL VO  VZ  VBE Basic Idea

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 17

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 18

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 19

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 21

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 22

■ For a fixed VS (and also VZ), IR is a fixed value

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 23

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 25

■ If this power, which is in the form of heat, is not properly transferred

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 26

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 27

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 28

where Pout = load power (VoIL)

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 29

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 30

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 31

Reference Error Sampling

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 33

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 34

■ The output voltage can be adjusted by varying the feedback factor β

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 35

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 36

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 37

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 38

■ The output voltage is given by:

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 41

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 42

VO  VBE 2  VZ  12  0.7  5.6 

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 43

■ R2 can be found from

■ Q1 emitter current is given by

■ Q1 base current is then given by

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 44

■ The value for R3 corresponding to VS=15V and IL=1A is

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 45

■ If the load is accidentally shorted, transistor Q2 is OFF as IB2 is 0

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 46

■ The base current of Q1 is

■ The excessive collector current Ic1 might damaged Q1 if it is above the

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 48

■ In normal condition, diodes D1 and D2 are not conducting

L max  IPT max  I

Chapter 3 - Voltage Regulators 50