Introduction to Development

Chapter 1
Development concept
 Development encompassing two important processes:
change and progress
 The essential idea of development lies in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical,
human and cultural environments, that is social
change
 It is also similar to a process of modernization.
Modernization is generally a process of improving the
capability of a nation’s institutions and value system
to meet increasing and different demands.
Definition of development
“ …. a multidimensional process,
which includes changes to the
fundamental structure of society,
attitude and institution….”

(Todaro, 1982).
 This approach requires change to the entire social
system so that it is consistent with the fundamental
needs of the individuals and the various groups
within the society.
 Development should provide them avenues to
leave the condition of life that is marked with
inconveniences to a condition that is perceived to
be better spiritually and materialistically.
 Indicators of Development
a) Qualitative development
Qualitative indicators are simply the values that one can feel but are
difficult to measure quantitatively. They include standard of living,
happiness, moral, values, culture and serenity (Rozalli Hashim, 2005).

b) Quantitative development
Quantitative indicators show ratios and overt values such as gross
national product (GNP), per capita income, birth rate, infant mortality
rate, quantity of export, industrialization level, and total foreign debt
(Rozalli Hashim, 2005).
 Development
Perspectives
..\Development Perspectives.pdf

Conservative Liberal Radical Islamic

Perspective Perspective Perspective Perspective
Conservative Perspective
Adam Smith & Ricardo - They suggest that in general
man is in need of positive (such as pay rise) and
negative incentives to become more productive (such as
the anxiety of being fired).

1. Conservatives give priority to the capitalist system-

open competition & maximization of profit. Belief
that those who are diligent/ hard working will gain
the benefits and those who are lazy will gain nothing.
2. Decision making is based on individual, family, or company - in
respond to create equilibrium & harmonious market.

3. Social change will only happen when individual want to change.

Belief that for the national development, active involvement in
economic and socio-political domains will guarantee for the
economic growth and any problem in economic growth is due to their
own cultural and environmental predicaments (unpleasant situation).

4. The main function of government is only to safe guard the country in

ensuring that the capitalist system works well without any barriers.
Belief that any active involvement from government will only give
more problem than actually solving it.
 Liberal Perspective
General Theory by Keynes - The liberals belief that government
play the important role in controlling the level of economic
activities so that they are in line with the national interest.

1. To achieve total justice, the liberals believe that

government needs to regulate laws and other necessary
programs for the public.

2. The government would be able to redistribute the nation’s

wealth through a progressive taxation system especially to
help poor and needy .
3. Believe that the government should intervene and
readjust the market mechanism which fails to
fulfill consumers demand and the basic needs of
man.

4. Keynes’s theory also allows the government to

borrow and use money to prevent any economic
crisis.
 Radical Perspective
The radical perspective is totally against the capitalist
paradigm of development
i.e. different from both liberal and conservative perspectives.

1. The radicals do not believe in an open economy, the

government should not satisfy the interests of the capitalist
class instead should fulfill the interest of the workers.

2. The radicals also believe that the root of class struggle is

the capitalist system itself. Therefore, against the capitalist
system.
3. The exploitation of one group over the other
should be avoided based on the struggle not to
personally own production factors within the country.

4. To the radicals, the economic mechanism is

supposed to produce economic growth for the state
to benefit the state and the people of the state, not
individuals.
 Development in Islamic perspective
There is one thing that must not be changed due to time changing which is Islamic doctrine,
principle and faith of the Muslim for their God, Allah.

Islam still prohibit the act like murder, rape, zina, robbery, and others criminal acts and we still
have to properly dress according to Shari’ah. We must differentiate between Halal (allowed acts)
and Haram (prohibited acts).

Therefore, development in Islam means the process of progressing and changing from one stage
(the present stage) to the other stage (the better stage) without negligence towards Shari’ah and
Islamic way of life.
Main concepts of development in
Islamic perspective
1. A holistic approach in development which
includes morality, spirituality and material
being. Humanistic aspects should not be
alienated from material aspects.

2. Foundation of development is humanity, and

not so much of economic development.
Development in Islam begins with individual,
then his family, his neighborhood, the society
and finally the grand Islamic ummah.
3. Economic development causes responsibilities among the rich and
the government in helping the poor and needy. The institution of
zakat (alms giving) not only helps the poor but also purifies the rich.

4. Economic equilibrium and holistic development. Quantitative

benchmark index such as GNP may be able to show the wealth of a
nation but it may not consider the qualitative elements that may
portray a different picture altogether.

5. Encourages the use of optimum resources. Use of resources

through a fair and equitable resources.
 18

THE SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGY THEORY

Social-
psychology
theory

Motivation Status
(David Withdrawal
McClelland) (Everett Hagen)

Need For High

Achievement
 Development Theories
THE SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGY THEORY
Based on the notion of social change. Most important aspect in development renders
change in the human population.

1. This theory assumes that psychological factor are among the important impetus of
change and development within a society that focuses on individuals and their
characteristics that could lead to advancement.

2. Different psychological attributes could push an individual forward and backwards.

3. This theory assumes that psychological factors are among the important
element of change and development within a society.
The Status withdrawal theory, Motivation and
the Need for High Achievement Theories
 Everett E. Hagen (The Status withdrawal theory)
and David McClelland (Motivation and the Need
for High Achievement) were the two of the most
leading theorists in this category.
The Status withdrawal theory
 Everett Hagen belief that the development begins
when there is a dramatic change from traditional
lifestyle to the modern lifestyle.
 Change will not happen w/out change in
personalities (traditional vs modern societies)
Traditional society
• Fixed status levels: peasants
and elites.
• Social groupings are
authoritarian, uncreative, and
noninnovational
• So, such type society has a
great degree of stability in its
institutions and may be no
social change for centuries
Modern society
• Innovational personality
• The personality attributes by
characteristics such as creative,
curious, and openness to
experience
• A person sees the world as
having a logical and coherent
order that can be understood
and explained
 Hagen poses the question: how can a stable traditional society
dominated by authoritarian personalities be transformed into a modern
society characterized by innovational personalities?

 Answer: change comes about if and when members of one particular

social group perceive that their purposes and values are not respected by
other groups whom they respect

 The phrase he uses for this is withdrawal of status respect (Hagen,

1962, p.185)
 Status withdrawal means, disregard for one’s role in society or for one’s
beliefs and aspirations.
 Example of the society in Japan, Burma, and Colombia
Motivation and the Need for High
Achievement
 McClelland believed that achievement-motivated
people are generally the ones who make things
happen and get the results.
Diffusion Theory
 Diffusion of innovations (new ideas, new things or
information) is described as “the process by which an
innovation (new ideas, new things etc.) is communicated
through certain channels over time among the members of a
social system” (Rogers, 1995).

 The channels are the means which an individual, groups or

organization communicates the innovations (ideas) to other
individuals, groups or organizations. The channels can be
either the mass media or interpersonal (Rogers, 1995).
1. Diffusion (spread all around) of innovations is the process of
spreading it into a social system.

2. The potential adopter will consider a few elements before

adopting the innovation, such as the advantage/ benefits of the
innovation, easy or difficult to use or understand the innovation
and so on.

3. Besides communication, other diffusion mechanisms are

through ideology, religious expansion, migration, cross
marriages, international trade, overseas travel and mass media,
including internet.
 George Murdock (1934) estimated that about 90% of every culture known
to history has acquired its elements from other peoples.

 Ralph Linton (1936) provides a classic illustration of the day for a typical
American in terms of the origins of the objects he or she uses:

1. The bed came from the Near East via northern Europe (western Asia,
Turkey, Egypt),
2. The cotton from India
3. The silk from China
4. The pajamas from India
5. The shaving ritual for men originated in Egypt
6. The custom of wearing a necktie came from 17 th century Croatia
 THE IDEAL-TYPE CONSTRUCT
THEORY
 Philips (1979), defines ideal – type construct as a gauge to
differentiate a given condition against another condition that is
deemed to be superior.

 In order to measure development achieved by a nation, an ideal

benchmarking or development indicators being introduced. It is the
effort to itemize these criteria is known as the ideal-type construct.

 Therefore, the construct provide mechanism to explain the

development of any developing nation by comparing its
achievements against some mutually acceptable criteria.
1. To measure the absolute term of development by
benchmarking it to an ideal state.

2. A mechanism to explain development of a developing

nation by comparing its achievement against some
mutually acceptable criteria.

3. Benchmarking a state against an ideally developed state

through some identifications of accepted elements of
development.
The end…