Chapter 32

Maxwell’s Equation:
-Gauss’ law for magnetism
-The missing term from Ampere’s law added by Maxwell
-

(32 – 1)
 Gauss' Law for the magnetic field
In electrostatics we saw that positive and negative charges
can be separated. This is not the case with magnetic poles,
as is shown in the figure. In fig.a we have a permanent bar
magnet with well defined north and south poles. If we
attempt to cut the magnet into pieces as is shown in fig.b
we do not get isolated north and south poles. Instead new
pole faces appear on the newly cut faces of the pieces and
the net result is that we end up with three smaller magnets,
each of which is a magnetic dipole i.e. it has a north and a
south pole. This result can be expressed as follows:
Fig.a
Fig.b

The simplest magnetic structure that can exist is a magnetic dipole.

Magnetic monopoles do not exists as far as we know.

(32 – 2)
   
Bi  B   B  dA
Magnetic Flux ΦB
i The magnetic flux through a closed surface
ΔAi is determined as follows: First we divide
nˆi
the surface into n area element with areas
A1 , A2 , A3 ,..., An

For each element we calculate the magnetic flux through it:  i  Bi dAi cos i

Here i is the angle between the normal nˆi and the magnetic field Bi vectors
at the position of the i-th element. The index i runs from 1 to n
n n
We then form the sum     B dA cos 
i 1
i
i 1
i i i

Finally, we take the limit of the sum as n  

The limit of the sum becomes the integral:
 
 B   BdA cos    B  dA
SI magnetic flux unit : T  m 2 known as the "Weber" (Wb)
(32 – 3)
  
 B   B  dA  0
Gauss' law for the magnetic field can be expressed
mathematically as follows: For any closed surface
 
 B   BdA cos    B  dA  0
Contrast this with Gauss' law for the electric field:
  qenc
 E   E  dA  Gauss' law for the magnetic
o
field expresses the fact that there is no such a thing as a
"magnetic charge". The flux  of either the electric or
the magnetic field through a surface is proportional to the
net number of electric or magnetic field lines that either
enter or exit the surface. Gauss' law for the magnetic field
expresses the fact that the magnetic field lines are closed.
The number of magnetic field lines that enter any closed
surface is exactly equal to the number of lines that exit the
surface. Thus  B  0.
(32 – 4)
Induced magnetic fields
  dB
Faraday's law states that:  E  dS   This law describes
dt
how a changing magnetic field generates (induces) an electric
field. Ampere's law in its original form reads:
 
 B  dS  oienc . Maxwell using an elegant symmetry
argument guessed that a similar term exists in Ampere's law.
  dE
The new term is written in red :  B  dS  oienc  o o
dt
This term, also known as "Maxwell's law of induction"
desrcibes how a changing electric field can generate a
magnetic field. The electric field between the plates of the
capacitor in the figure changes with time t. Thus the electric
flux  E through the red circle is also changing with t and
a non-vanishing magnetic field is predicted by Maxwell's law
of induction. Experimentaly it was verified that
the predicted magnetic field exists.
(32 – 5)
   dE The displacement current
 B  dS   i
o enc  
o o
dt Ampere's complete law has the form:
  dE
 B  dS   i
o enc  
o o
dt
dE
We define the displacement current id   o
dt
Using id Ampere's law takes the form:
 
 B  dS  oienc oid ,enc
In the example of the figure we can show that
id between the capacitor plates is equal to the
current i that flows through the wires which
charge the capacitor plates.

 q
The electric flux through the capacitor plates  E  AE  A  .
o o
dE 1 q q
The displacement current id   o  o  i
dt o o o (32 – 6)
  
 B  dS  oienc oid ,enc
Consider the capacitor with
circular plates of radius R
In the space between the capacitor
plates the term i is equal to zero
Thus Ampere's law becomes:
 
 B  dS oid ,enc
We will use Ampere's law to
determine the magnetic field.

The calculation is identical to that of a magnetic field generated by a long wire

of radius R. This calculation was carried out in chapter 29 for a point P at a distance
r from the wire center. We will repeat the calculation for points outside  r  R
as well as inside  r  R  the capacitor plates. In this example r is the distance
of the point P from the capacitor center C.
(32 – 7)
 
dS 
B
P

r

id C R

Magnetic field outside the capacitor plates :

We choose an Amperian loop that reflects the cylindrical symmetry of the problem.
The loop is a circle of radius r that has its center at the capacitor plate center C.
The magnetic field is tangent to the loop and has a constant magnitude B.
  oid
 B  ds   Bds cos 0  B  ds  2 rB   i
o d , enc   i
o d  B 
2 r
(32 – 8)
 Magnetic field inside the capacitor plates
We assume that the distribution of id
within the cross-section of the capacitor plate is uniform.
We choose an Amperian loop is a circle of radius r
(r  R ) that has its center at C. The magnetic field is
tangent to the loop and has a constant magnitude B.
 
 B  ds   Bds cos 0  B  ds  2 rB  oid , enc
 r2 r2
id ,enc  id  id 2
R 2
R
r2  i 
2 rB  oid 2  B   o d 2  r
R  2 R 

 B
dS  oid
P B
r 2 R
id  C R

O R r (32 – 9)
Maxwell's equations
Below we summarize the four equations on which electromagnetic theory
is based on. We use here the complete form of Ampere's law as modified by
Maxwell:
   qenc
Gauss' law for E :  E  dA  o

  
Gauss' law for B :  B  dA  0
  dB
Faraday's law :  E  dS  
dt

  dE
Ampere's law :  B  dS   i
o enc  
o o
dt
These equations describe a group of diverse phenomena and devices based
on them such as the magnetic compass,electric motors, electric generators,
radio, television, radar, x-rays, and all of optical effects.
All these in just four equations! (32 – 10)
   dE
A word of explanation :  B  dS  oienc o o
dt
In this section I will discuss a question which many of you may have.
Maxwell added just one term in one out of four equations, and all of a sudden
the set is called after him. Why? The reason is that Maxwell manipulated
the four equations (with Ampere's law now containing histerm) and he got
solutions that described waves that could travel in vacuum with a speed
1
v  3  108 m/s.
o o

This happens to be the speed of light in vacuum measured a few years earlier
by Fizeau. It was natural for Maxwell to contemplate whether light,
whose nature was not clear could be such an electromagnetic wave.
Maxwell died soon after this and was not able to verify his hypothesis.
This task was carried out by Hertz who verified experimentally
the existance of electromagnetic waves.

(32 – 11)