Electromagnetic Wave Propagation

1. The differential form of basic laws of electricity and magnetism:

  
E  (Gauss‟s law)   B  0 (No name)
0

 B  
 E   (Faraday‟s law)  B  0 J (Ampere‟s law)
t

 E
2. Displacement current: J d   0
t

3. Maxwell’s Equations:

  
E   B  0
0
 
 B   E
 E    B  0 J  0 0 (Ampere‟s law with Maxwell‟s correction)
t t

4. Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction:


  E
 B  0 J  0 0
t
The statement established by Maxwell: Time varying electric field induces a magnetic
field.
Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction, in integral form:

   E  
 B  dl  0 I enc  0 0   t   da
   
  B  dl   0 I enc   0  d  da
J

5. Maxwell’s equations in material medium:


  B
D  f  E  
t

   D
B  0  H  J f 
t
6. The total energy stored in electromagnetic field :
1 1 2
U em     0 E 2  B  d
2 0 
V


7. Poynting’s vector S : 
 The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields.
 1  
S ( E  B)
0
 1  
 The unit of Poynting‟s vector S  (E  B) is Js-1 m-2 or Wm-2.
0

8. Poynting’s theorem [ “Work-energy theorem” of electrodynamics]:

The Poynting‟s theorem states that “the work done on the charges by the electromagnetic
field is equal to the decrease in energy stored in the fields less the energy which is flowed
out through the surface”.

dW dU em  
dt

dt 

s
S  da

Differential version of Poynting‟s Theorem:

 
 umech  uem     S
t

9.
Equations of electromagnetic waves: Velocity of electromagnetic waves:

 2 E
 E  0 0 2
2
1
t  v  3 108 m  s-1
 2 B 0 0
 2 B  0 0 2
t

10. The correct form of Ampere‟s law for circuits with gaps in them is
dE
 B  ds   I
0 enclosed  0 0
dt
11. A capacitor made from parallel circular plates, of radius ‘a’ and separation s, is inserted
into a long straight wire carrying current I. As the capacitor charges up, find the
induced magnetic field midway between the plates, at a distance r ( r  a ) from the
center.

Hints:

 E  q  1 dQ I
 Displacement current: J d   0  0  2
 2  2
t t   0 a   a dt  a
 Consider an Amperian circle centered to the wire, parallel to the plate and of radius r ,
then we can have:
 
 Bdl   I o denc

I
 B 2 r  0  r2
a 2

o Ir
B
2 a 2

12. A plane parallel plate capacitor has plates of 10 cm2 area that are 1.0 mm apart. At an
instant when charge is being accumulated on the plates at a rate of 12 nC/s, the
displacement current between the plates is 1.2  108 A .

  E   1 dQ   dQ
Hint: I d   J d  da    0  da    0    da 
t 
 0 A dt  dt
 Electromagnetic Induction
1. Motional emf: The emf induced in a conductor moving through a constant magnetic field.
1    
q 
2. The emf is    Fmag  dl  f mag  dl [the work done per unit charge]

d
3. The flux rule for motional emf:   
dt
4. Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction:
 The change in magnetic flux produces an induced emf in the circuit.
 The induced emf lasts as long as change in flux continues.\
 The induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.

Faraday’s law:
 If the magnetic flux  B through an area bounded by a closed conducting
loop changes with time, a current and an emf are produced in the loop; this
process is called induction.

dB
The induced emf is     Faraday's law  .
dt
A changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

 Faraday’s law, in integral form:


  B 
 E  dl =   t  da
 Faraday’s law, in differential form:

 B
E = 
t

Forms of Faraday’s law:  

d  B  A
     E =    E  
dt t t



The following pairs of equations conclude that E is purely Faraday’s
 
  B
induced electric field:   E = 0;  E = 
t

5. Universal Flux rule:

Whenever (and for whatever reason) the magnetic flux through a loop changes,
d
an emf    will appear in the loop.
dt
6. Lenz’s law:
 The direction of induced current or emf is given by the Lenz‟s law.
 The induced current in a loop is in the direction that creates a magnetic
field that opposes the change in magnetic flux through the area enclosed
by the loop.
7. Self- inductance  L  :
 An induced emf  appears in any coil in which the current is changing.
 It is found that magnetic flux   linked with coil is proportional to the current  I 
flowing through it.

   I   L I L 
 dI 
where L is the inductance of the loop.  
Self-induced emf:  dt 
d d  LI  dI Unit 
volt  sec
 henry ( H )
L     L
dt dt dt ampere
 Wb A1

 The direction of L is found from Lenz‟s law.

8. The flux (in weber) in a closed circuit of a resistance 10 varies with t (in seconds)
according to equation   6t 2  5t  1 . The magnitude of induce current at t  0.25S is 0.2A
  d  
  
 dt  at t=0.25 
Hint: I   


 R R 
 
 
9. An emf of 16V is induced in a coil of inductance 4H  Rate of change of current = 4 A/s.

10. In an inductor of self-inductance L=2 mH, current changes with time according to the
relation I  t 2et . The time at which emf is zero is t = 2S.

11. The self-inductance per unit length of a long solenoid, of radius R, carrying n turns per
unit length:

L  (nl )( 0 nI )( R 2 )
 I   0 n2 R 2
l l lI lI
[l  length of small segment of solenoid]
12. Mutual Inductance  M 21  :
If coils 1 and 2 are near each other, a changing
current in coil 1 can induce an emf in the coil 2.

dI1
2  M 21
dt

volt  sec
Unit   henry ( H )
ampere
 Wb A1
13. Neumann Formula and Reciprocity Theorem

Figure R-1 Figure R-2

 
 dl1  dl2
Neumann formula: M 21  0
4 C2 C1 r
 The mutual inductance between two loops depends on (i) shape of the
loops, (ii) size of the loops and (iii) relative distance between the loops,
but does not depend on the current flowing along the loops.

Reciprocity theorem
Whatever the shapes and positions of the loops, the flux through 2 when we run a
current I around 1 is identical to the flux through 1 when we send the same current
I around 2.

   
 dl1  dl2   dl2  dl1 
2   0
 4
C2 C1 r  I   40 C1 C2 r  I  1
 M 21  M 12

14. A short solenoid (length l and radius a , with n1 turns per unit length) lies on the axis of a
very long solenoid (radius b , n2 turns per unit length) as shown in Figure below. Current I
flows in the short solenoid. What is the flux through the long solenoid?

Hint: Let the current I flows in the long solenoid.

According to the reciprocity theorem,
The total flux through the long solenoid = The total flux through the long solenoid
 L   S  (n1l ) [( 0 n2 I )( a 2 )]   0 a 2 n1n2l  I
 15. Energy stored in a magnetic field of coil:
1
 Energy stored, W  L I 2
2
1
 Energy stored, W  
20 all space
B 2 d

B2
 Energy stored per unit volume (i.e. energy density): U B 
2 0
 Unit of energy density U B  J m3
 
  
Unit of B  H  BH  B
B B2

0
 J m3
0
16. In a section of length l of a long solenoid (radius R, current I, and n turns per unit
length) :
The Energy stored:
1 1 1

W 
20 all space
B 2 d 
2 0  B 2 d 
2 0
( 0 nI )2 ( R 2l )

B 2 ( 0 nI )2 0 n2 I 2
The energy density: U B   
2 0 2 0 2
17. A 100 mH coil carries a current of 1A.Energy stored in the form of magnetic field is 0.05 J.
1
W  LI2
2

18. The current in an LR dc circuit at any time t is given by I (t )  0 1  e ( R / L )t  where 0 is
R
the emf of the battery.
Hint: Use Ohm‟s law:
dI
o  L  IR
dt

 R 
  t
  
 I  t   o [1  e L  ] L
R The quantity   is called time constant; it tells you how
R
long the current takes to reach a substantial fraction (roughly
two-thirds) of its final value.
19. A long coaxial cable carries current I (the current flows down the surface of the inner
cylinder, radius a , and back along the outer cylinder, radius b ) as shown in Figure below.
Find the magnetic energy stored in a section of length l . Also find coefficient of self-
induction.

Hint: According to Ampere‟s law,  

The field between the cylinders is  
I  Ampere's law: 
B 0  B  dl   I 
2 r   0 enc 
Elsewhere, the field is zero.   r  radius of circular amperian loop,  
 B  0 I enc  
 2 r  centred on the axis of cylinder  
The energy in a cylindrical shell of
length l , radius r , and thickness dr :
dW  energy density  volume
 1  0 I  2 

  2 r    2 rdr l 
 0 
2  
The magnetic energy stored in a section of length l :
1  0 I  0 I 2 l  b 
2
b dr
W   dW     a r 4 ln  a 

20  2 
2 l
Some Notes:
1. A current may be induced in a coil by
(i) moving one end of a bar magnet through the coil.
(ii) moving the coil toward one end of the bar magnet.
(iii) holding the coil near a second coil while the electric current in the second coil is
increasing.

2. Coil 1, connected to a 100  resistor, sits inside coil 2. Coil 1 is connected to a source of
60 cycle per second AC current.
 AC current (current flow in alternating directions) will be induced in coil 2.

3. An induced emf is produced in a closed loop of wire moving at constant velocity in a

nonuniform static magnetic field.

4. A bar magnet is dropped from above and falls through the loop of wire shown below. The
north pole of the bar magnet points downward towards the page as it falls.

 The current in the loop flows first in a counterclockwise, then in a

clockwise direction.

5. Human brain activity produces weak variable electric currents. The way these are detected
without surgery is by measuring the magnetic fields they produce by means of small loops
of wire of very low resistance placed near the brain.

6. As shown below, a square loop of wire of side a moves through a uniform magnetic field

of magnitude B perpendicular to the page at constant velocity 
v directed to the right.
         
         
          

v
         
         

 The emf induced in the loop is zero, because the magnetic flux through the loop is
constant.
 MAGNETOSTATICS

1. A stationary charge produces only an electric field E in the space around it, a moving

charge generates, in addition, a magnetic field B .
2. Steady currents→ constant magnetic fields: Magnetostatics
3. Current-carrying wire:
If you grab the wire with your right hand-thumb in the
direction of the current- your fingers curl around in the
direction of the magnetic field.

4. Currents in opposite directions repel and currents in same directions attract.

A square loop is placed near an infinite straight wire as

shown in figure above. Both the wires carry same current
along the direction as indicated in figure. The square loop
tends to move away from the straight wire.

 
5. The magnetic force in a charge Q moving with velocity v in magnetic field B is given by
  
Fmag  Q(v  B)
Direction of force is given by Fleming left hand rule.

6. Magnetic forces do no work.

       
dWmag  FB  dl  Q(v  B)  vdt=0 [  v  B is perpendicular to v]

   
7. Lorentz force : FL  Q[E+v  B]

 ˆ ˆ m s1 in a magnetic field

8. If a charge of 3 C is moving with velocity v = (4i+3j)
  
ˆ ˆ Wb m2 , then the force acting on the test charge, F  Q(v  B)  0 .
B = (4i+3j) mag
9. Cyclotron Motion:

When a charged particle of mass m enters a magnetic field B
in a direction perpendicular to the field:
The motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field is
circular, with the magnetic force providing the centripetal
acceleration.
mv 2
 QvB= where, m = the particle‟s mass
R
R = radius of circle

  Momentum of particle:
B = a uniform magnetic field p = mv = QBR [cyclotron formula]
points into the page
  Cyclotron frequency:
v = velocity of charged particle
 v 
 
of charge Q [xy-plane]
QB R 
f   
2 m   2
 2 f
 T 
2 m
 Time period: T 
QB

10. A charge particle is circling in a magnetic field with cyclotron frequency f o . If speed of
charge particle is doubled, the new cyclotron frequency is f o .

11. A charge follows helical path, when it enters a magnetic field obliquely.

12. Cycloid Motion:

Suppose that the magnetic field points in the x-direction and the electric field in the z-
direction. A charged particle is released from the origin. The path followed by the particle
is a cycloid on yz-plane .

13. A charged particle is released from rest in a region where there is a constant electric field
and a constant magnetic field. If the two fields are parallel to each other, the path of the
particle is straight line.
14. Magnetic Field:
FB  N Wb N 
 B 1 T  1 C  m s  1 m2  1 A  m 
Qvsin  
 Unit of magnetic field  tesla (T) [SI] , gauss (G)[cgs] .
 1 tesla  104 gauss

 
15. Magnetic Flux: B   Bda Unit of Magnetic Flux : weber [Wb]
s

16. The magnetic force on a segment of current-carrying wire is given by

      
Fm  I  (dl  B)   (K B) da   (J B) d 


 dI
Surface current density, K  ; K is the current per unit width-perpendicular-to-flow
dl

 dI
Volume current density, J  ; J is the current per unit area -perpendicular-to-flow
da

17.
(a) A current I is uniformly distributed over a wire of circular cross section, with radius a
(Figure M-1). Find the volume current density.
(b) Suppose the current density in the wire is proportional to the distance from the axis, J = k s
(for some constant k). Find the total current in the wire.

Figure M-1
I
Hint: (a) J  2
a
2 ka3
a a
(b) I   J da   (ks)(2 sds)  2 k  s 2 ds 
S
0 0
3
18. Continuity Equation:

Figure M-2 a “tube” of infinitesimal cross section da , running to the flow
Because charge is conserved, whatever flows out through the surface must come at the
expense of that remaining of that remaining inside:
   
V  
 J  d
d     d    
dt V V  d
 t 
 
 .J   .
t

This is the precise mathematical statement of local charge conservation; it is called the
continuity equation.

Continuity Equation in Magnetostatics:


.J  0.

19. Biot-Savart law:

  
  0 I1 dl1  rˆ 0 I1 dl1  r
B1  r    r 2  4  r 3
4 
(i) For line current:

  
  I J (r)  rˆ 0 I1 J (r)  r
(ii) For volume current: B1  r   0  r 2  4  r 3
4

Permeability of free space: 0  4 107 N  A2

20. Two long parallel wires a distance d apart, carrying currents I1 and I 2 in the same
direction as shown in Figure.
 II
The force per unit length is f  0 1 2
2 d

Force is attractive

21. Applications of Biot-Savart law:

(i) The magnetic field a distance ‘ s ’ from a long straight wire carrying a steady
current I:

0 I
B (sin  2  sin 1 )
4 s
 The magnetic field a distance „ s ‟ from a infinitely long straight wire [both sides,
  I
1   and 1  ] carrying a steady current I: B  0
2 2 2 s
(ii) The magnetic field at the centre of a square loop
of side „a‟ [Figure Below], which carries a
steady current, I is
2 0 I 2 2 0 I
B 
R a

(iii) The magnetic field at the centre of a regular n-sided polygon of side „ L ‟ , which
carries a steady current, I is
I nL
B 0 [ R  distance from the centre to any side]
4 R L2
R2 
4
(iv) The magnetic field at a distance ‘z’ above the center of a circular loop of radius R,
which carries a steady current I:

0 I R2
B
2 (R 2  z 2 )3/2

Note:
If there are N number of circular
loops tightly gathered together, then
0 I R2
BN
2 (R 2  z 2 )3/2

(v) The magnetic field at the center of a circular loop of radius R, which carries a
steady current I:
 I
B 0
2R

Direction of magnetic field is given by right-hand thumb rule

(vi) Magnetic Field :

The magnitude of the magnetic field

at point P if a = R and b = 2R:

30 I
B  B1  B2 
4R

The magnitude of the magnetic field

at point P:

 0 I
B
4 R
 The magnitude of the magnetic field
at point P :
1   I  1 1 
B   0     (out )
4  2  a b 

The magnitude of the magnetic field

at point P:

0 I  2
B 1   (into the page)
4R   

(vii) The magnetic field B on the axis of a tightly wound solenoid (helical coil)
consisting of n turns per unit length wrapped around a cylindrical tube of radius „a’
and carrying current I (Figure S) in terms of 1 and  2 is

0 nI
B (cos  2  cos 1 ) .
2

Figure S

(viii) The magnetic field of an infinite solenoid with „n‟ turns per unit length, radius R,
and current I:

B0 outside the solenoid
=0 n I inside the solenoid
22. Ampere’s law:
 
 B dl
 0 I enc

  B  o J

Applications:
(i) The magnetic field a distance s from a long straight wire carrying a steady
current I:

0 I
B
2 s

(ii) The magnetic field of a very long solenoid, consisting of n closely wound turns
per unit length on a cylinder of radius R and carrying a steady current I:
B  0 nI , inside the solenoid
=0, inside the solenoid

(iii) Two long and straight conducting wires separated with distance d and each of
carrying current I in same direction. The magnetic field at the point midway
between the wires is zero.
(iv) Two long and straight conducting wires separated with distance d and each of
carrying current I in opposite direction. The magnetic field at the point midway
2 I
between the wires is 0 .
d
(v) Suppose the current density in the wire [radius „a‟] is proportional to the
distance from the axis, J  k s (for some constant k). The total current in the
2 ka 2
wire is I  .
3
 
23. Magnetic vector potential( A ):

 
B   A
 
  0 dl  0 I1 J
 Magnetic vector potential: A  r    r  4  r d 
4 
 SI unit of magnetic vector potential: V  S  m1 or T  m


  1   
  
If B is uniform, Magnetic vector potential, A   r  B , where r is a vector
2
from the origin to the point in question.
  1    
  
If A(r )   r  B [ B is uniform] , then   A  0
2

 If A  Axiˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ is magnetic vector potential, the y-component of magnetic
field is
Ax Az
My   .
z x
 The vector potential of an infinite solenoid with n turns per unit length, radius R,
and current I:

 1 0 n IR 2
A , outside the solenoid
2 r
1
= 0 n Ir , inside the solenoid
2

24. The divergence of magnetic field is zero i.e.  B  0 . This confirms that magnetic
monopole doesn’t exist.
Notes:
1. A physicist claims that she has found a new particle with a mass 200,000 times the mass of
the proton ( 1.67  1027 kg ) and a charge of 3.20  1019 C . If she is correct, such a particle
traveling in a circle in a uniform 5.00 T magnetic field at a velocity of 2500 m/s will have a
radius of 0.522 m.
mv2 mv
[Use QvB=  QB= ]
r r

2. If a magnetic field is directed out of the page & two

charged particles enter from the top and take the paths
shown in the figure, then particle 1 has a positive charge
and particle 2 has a negative charge. [Use Fleming‟s left
hand rule]

3. One reason why we know that magnetic fields are not the same as electric fields is because
the force exerted on a charge +q is parallel to an electric field and perpendicular to a
magnetic field.
4. If Equal charges, one at rest, the other having a velocity of 104 m/s, are released in a
uniform magnetic field then the charge that is moving if its velocity makes an angle of 45o
with the direction of the magnetic field when it is released.
 Magnetic Fields in Matter
1. 
Magnetic dipole moment ( m ):
 
m  IA
where I  current through the loop

A  Vector area of loop.

The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is the

ampere meter squared [A m2].

Magnetic dipoles  tiny current loops

2.
Find the magnetic dipole moment of the Hint:
“bookend-shaped” loop as shown in The net magnetic dipole moment is

Figure L. All sides have length L, and it m  I L2 ˆj  I L2 kˆ ; its magnitude is
carries a current I .
2 I L2 , and it

3. 
Magnetization ( M ):
 1 
 Magnetization, M  lim
V 0 V
m
i
i where, V  a small volume element


mi  magnetic moment of the ith atom
 The SI unit of magnetization is ampere per meter [A/m].

4.
Force and Torque on Magnetic Dipole
In a uniform field, the net force on a current loop is zero
The toque on the dipole:
  
  m B
  
The energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field B : U  m  B .
5.

 
The effect of magnetization is to establish bound currents J b   M within the material and
 
Kb  M  nˆ on the surface.

6. Volume Bound Current density :

The volume bound current density

 
Jb    M
iˆ ˆj kˆ
     
 
 Jb
x
 
iˆ  J b
y
 
ˆj  J b
z
kˆ =
x y z
Mx My Mz

  Jb  0

7. Ampere’s law in Magnetized Materials

 
  H  J f  1  
  H B  M is the auxiliary field
0
    dl  I fenc
H

where I fenc is the total free current passing through the Amperian loop.

8. Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability

For linear media:

 
M  m H  m  magnetic susceptibility; dimensionless quantity
    
 
 B  0 H  M  0 1   m  H   H
where   0 1   m 
  Permeability of the material
0  Permeability of free space
   
In a homogeneous linear material: J b   M     m H    m J f
 9.
Diamagnetic Substances: Paramagnetic Substances: Ferromagnetic Substances:
The magnetic moment is weak The magnetic moment is weak In ferromagnetic substances,
and opposite the applied and in the same direction as the interaction between atoms
magnetic field. cause magnetic moments to
applied magnetic field. align and create a strong
Examples: Gold, Silver etc
Examples:-Aluminum magnetization that remains
platinum, etc. after the external field is
removed.
Examples: - Iron, Nickel etc
Diamagnetic substances are
They are feebly attracted by They are strongly attracted by
weakly repelled by a magnet.
magnets. magnets.

The magnetic susceptibility is The magnetic susceptibility is The magnetic susceptibility is

negative for diamagnets. positive and low for positive and high for
paramagnetic substances. ferromagnetic substances.

10. Hysteresis loop:

Retentivity or Remanence:-
The value of magnetization of the
material, when the magnetizing
field is reduced to zero

Coercive force or Coercivity: -

The value of reverse magnetizing
field needed to reduce residual
magnetization to zero.

Retentivity: The value of B at

point b.

Coercivity: The magnitude of H

at point c.
11. Hysteresis Loss

The amount of energy lost (in the form of heat) per unit volume of ferromagnetic substance
when the substance undergoes one cycle of magnetization is known as hysteresis loss.
N 
Hysteresis loss      i di 
 i 1 
 HdM
 0   0  Area of M  H curve

 dB 
Hysteresis loss   B0   dH  [B0  0 H ]
 0 
  HdB
 Area of B  H curve

Notes:
 Domain formation is the necessary feature of ferromagnetism.
 The area of the B-H hysteresis loop is an indication of the energy dissipated per cycle.
 The magnetization left on a ferromagnetic material after the removal of magnetizing
field once the saturation has been reached is called retentively.
 Ferromagnetic materials possess the paramagnetic behavior above a certain temperature
called Curie temperature.