Hydrocarbons

(Alkanes)
 Introduction to Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula of CnH2n+2
Alkanes are They are saturated which Cycloalkanes are slightly
Cycloalkanes are still
hydrocarbons which means each carbon is different. They have the
saturated, and they are a
means they contain bonded 4 times with the general formula of CnH2n
functional group isomer
hydrogen and carbon maximum number of with 2 hydrogens per of alkenes.
only hydrogens possible. carbon.
H H
H H H H H H C
H H
H C HH C C HH C C C H C C
H
H
C C
H H H H H H H
HH
H
methane ethane propane
cyclopentane
 Fractional Distillation
Alkanes are found in crude oil which is a mixture of different length
hydrocarbons
The vaporised oil
1-4 Carbons enters the column • The column has a
Crude oil is
and rises through the temperature gradient. It is
vaporised using
a furnace to trays. The longest cooler at the top. As the
5-12 Carbons hydrocarbons don’t
about 350°C vapour rises parts of the
11-15 Carbons vaporise and run mixture condense at different
down to the bottom. temperatures.
15-19 Carbons
• This is because there are
The shortest hydrocarbons
different chain lengths and
20-40 Carbons won’t even condense at
hence different boiling points.
20°C and so comes off as a
• The fractions are drawn off at
gas at the top of the
different levels.
column.
40+ Carbons
 Fractional Distillation
The fractions can be used in various ways.

Gas
Used in LPG and stove gas Kerosene
Used as jet fuel and heating
Bitumen
Used in roofing and tarmac
Diesel Oil
Used as diesel fuel

Fuel Oil
Petrol Used in ships and power stations
Used in petrol cars
 Cracking
Heavier fractions can be cracked to higher demand lighter fractions

Fractional distillation Heavier fractions like fuel

produces a variety of oil are in lower demand
fractions however demand than lighter fractions such
for each fraction varies. as petrol which are more
valuable.
There are 2 types
We can take the heavier of cracking –
fractions and crack them. Thermal cracking
Cracking is breaking a
C12H26 🡪 C2H4 + C10H22 Catalytic cracking
longer chain alkane to Dodecane Ethene Decane
shorter hydrocarbons.
 Thermal Cracking
High temperature and pressure used
1000°C
70 atm of pressure

Products of thermal cracking are mainly

alkenes

Alkenes are used to make polymers

such as plastics. e.g. propene is used to
make poly(propene)
 Catalytic Cracking
High temperature and Products of catalytic cracking are mainly
slight pressure used aromatic hydrocarbons useful in fuels
450°C for vehicles. (Aromatic compounds contain
A zeolite catalyst is used benzene rings which is 6 carbons in ring with a
which helps to lower the delocalised electron system).
temperature needed.

Using a zeolite catalyst lowers the

temperature and pressure needed for
cracking to occur.
This lowers costs and speeds up the process.
 Complete Combustion of Alkanes
Alkanes burn in oxygen Alkanes are good fuels as most burn
completely (plentiful readily to produce large amounts of
supply of O2) to form energy.
carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) The complete combustion of butane
C4H10(g) + 6.5O2(g) 🡪 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

They are used to power vehicles and most of UK’s

electricity is made using the combustion of alkanes.
 Incomplete Combustion of Alkanes
When alkanes burn with The incomplete combustion of butane
a limited oxygen supply, producing CO
we produce carbon C4H10(g) + 4.5O2(g) 🡪 4CO(g) + 5H2O(g)
monoxide (CO) and
carbon (soot). Carbon monoxide is poisonous as it bonds to
haemoglobin in the blood and prevents oxygen bonding.
Carbon monoxide can be removed using a catalytic
converter.
The incomplete combustion of butane Soot can cause breathing
producing C (soot). problems, make buildings
C4H10(g) + 2.5O2(g) 🡪 4C(s) + 5H2O(g) dirty, and clog up engines.
 Burning Hydrocarbon Fuels
Nitrates such as nitrogen
monoxide (NO) are formed in
cars. They are made by reacting
nitrogen and oxygen (both
found in air) together using an
electrical spark. This spark
comes from the spark plugs in
the car which ignites the fuel.
N2(g) + O2(g) 🡪 2NO(g)
NO in the atmosphere is harmful so cars are fitted with
catalytic converters which reacts carbon monoxide (CO -
which is produced from the incomplete combustion of the
fuel) and nitrogen monoxide (NO).
Catalytic converters in cars reduce levels of
pollution. They are made from a rhodium,
platinum and palladium alloy
The reaction is – 2CO + 2NO 🡪 2CO2 + N2
Catalytic Converter in
a car
Ballista
 Free Radical Substitution Reactions
These reactions involve 3 main stages –
Initiation, Propagation, and Termination

Initiation
Radicals are produced normally using visible light
or ultraviolet. Called photochemical reactions.
The bond breaks producing 2 radicals.
Propagation
When a radical reacts with a non radical
molecule. New radicals are created which then go
on to react with other non-radicals. This is why
it’s also called a chain reaction.

Termination
When 2 radicals react, they form a non-radical
molecule. This ends the chain reaction. This is
why it’s called termination.
 Free Radical Substitution – Making
Halogenoalkanes UV
Chloromethane can be made via this reaction – CH4 + Cl2 🡪 CH3Cl + HCl
Initiation UV
Cl Cl 🡪 Cl + Cl • •
Sunlight breaks the Cl-Cl bond in a process called photodissociation.
The bond breaks equally producing 2 highly reactive radicals.
If there is loads of Cl•, we will get di,
H H Propagation tri, tetra halogenoalkane.
1. The Cl radical reacts with a methane molecule
Cl • + H
H C H 🡪 HCl + •C H •
to make a methyl radical ( CH3).
H H H
2. The methyl radical reacts with a Cl2 molecule
•
• forming chloromethane and a Cl radical.
Cl + Cl •
H
C + Cl Cl 🡪 H C 3. This Cl radical can react with more methane
H
H H
H •
Termination C + •Cl 🡪 H
H
C Cl
2 radicals react to make a stable non-radical molecule. For example, H
C Harris - Allery Chemistry
H