MEMORY

Mr.
ABIHUDI S MOTE 02/08/2019
MODULE 4 – MEMORY
Mr. ABIHUDI S MOTE 02/08/2019
CONTENTS
• Memory Basics (ROM, RAM, CACHE)
• Memory Modules
• Conventional (Base) Memory
• Total Installed Memory Versus Total Usable
• Memory
• Common Memory Problems
• Troubleshooting Memory: Defect Isolation
• Procedures
MEMORY BASICS (ROM, RAM, CACHE)

Memory of computer is a storage area and there are many types of memories with different
purpose. Basically we can categorize memory in to Main memory and Secondary memory.
Main Memories
 RAM
 ROM
 Cache
Secondary Memories3 (Secondary Storages)

•  Hard disk
•  CD/DVD disk
•  Floppy
•  USB Drive (pen drive, flash drive)
•  Tape Drive
RAM is divided into two major types:

1. dynamic RAM (DRAM)
2. static RAM (SRAM)
i. DRAM is less expensive but slower than SRAM.

ii. DRAM chips are slower than SRAM.
• Most memory on a motherboard is DRAM, but a small amount of SRAM can be found inside the
processor, just outside the processor inside the processor housing, and sometimes on the
motherboard.
• SRAM is also known as cache memory. Cache memory holds the most frequently used
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
• Read-only memory, or ROM, is a type of memory that can permanently or semi

permanently store data. It is called read-only because it is either impossible or difficult to
write to. ROM also is often referred to as nonvolatile memory because any data stored in
ROM remains there, even if the power is turned off.
• ROM chip contains the following programs
i. BIOS
ii. POST Program
iii. BootStrap Loader
ROM CHIP TYPES

• The four main types of ROM chips that have been used in PCs are as follows:
i. ROM. Read-only memory
ii. PROM. Programmable ROM
iii. EPROM. Erasable PROM
iv. EEPROM. Electrically erasable PROM, also sometimes called a flash ROM
PROM:
• There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable
Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase
programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip.
Once the programmers’ are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power
is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be
erased or changed.
EPROM:
• This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the
problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing
the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for
some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special
programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read.
CACHE MEMORY
• A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the
average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores
copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most
memory accesses are cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses
will be closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main memory.
REGISTERS:
• The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there is also movement of data
between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high
speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are
not part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on
as directed by the control unit.
Memory Physical Packaging
• A dual in-line package (DIP) chip has a row of legs running down each side. The oldest
motherboards use DIP chips for the DRAM.
• Single in-line memory modules (SIMM) came along next. Sometimes you might see
SIMMs as memory in laser printers.
• The memory chip used on motherboards today is a dual in-line memory module (DIMM),
which has 168, 184, 240, or 288 pins. Memory can also be called a memory stick, or a
technician might call one memory module a stick of memory, or simply RAM
• RIMMs are used in older Intel Pentium 4 computers.

MEMORY MODULES
• Most people cannot tell the difference among DDR, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 memory
modules. Even though DDR uses 184 pins, DDR2 and DDR3 use 240 pins, and DDR4
has 288 pins, they are the same physical size. Even though both DDR2 and DDR3
modules have 240 pins, a DDR3 module does not fit in a DDR2 memory slot.
CONVENTIONAL (BASE) MEMORY

• In DOS memory management, conventional memory, also called base memory, is the first
640 kilobytes (640 × 1024 bytes) of the memory on IBM PC or compatible systems. It is
the read-write memory directly addressable by the processor for use by the operating
system and application programs. As memory prices rapidly declined, this design
decision became a limitation in the use of large memory capacities until the introduction
of operating systems and processors that made it irrelevant.
TOTAL INSTALLED MEMORY VERSUS TOTAL

USABLE
MEMORY
• On a computer that is running Windows 7, the usable memory (RAM) may be less than
the installed memory.
• For example, a 32-bit version of Windows 7 may report that there is only 3.5 GB of
usable system memory on a computer that has 4 GB of memory installed.
• Or, a 64-bit version of Windows 7 may report that there is only 7.1 GB of usable system
memory on a computer that has 8 GB of memory installed.
CAUSE
• This is expected behavior on computers that are running Windows 7. The reduction in available
system memory depends on the configuration of the following:
• The devices that are installed in the computer and the memory that is reserved by those devices
• The ability of the motherboard to handle memory
• The System BIOS version and settings
• The version of Windows 7 that is installed (For example, Windows 7 Starter Edition only
supports 2 GB of installed memory.)
• Other system settings
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
• Check the system configuration settings

• This problem may occur because the Maximum memory option is selected incorrectly. To fix this, follow these
steps:
i. Click Start windows icon, type msconfig in the Search programs and files box, and then click msconfig in the
Programs list.
ii. In the System Configuration window, click Advanced options on the Boot tab.
iii. Click to clear the Maximum memory check box, and then click OK.
iv. Restart the computer.
• Update the system BIOS

• The problem may occur because the system BIOS is outdated. If you have an older computer, the system may be
unable to access all the installed RAM. In this case, you have to update the system BIOS to the latest version.
Check BIOS settings

• The problem may occur because some BIOS settings are incorrect.
• Enable the memory remapping feature
• Check the BIOS settings to see whether the memory remapping feature is enabled. Memory remapping gives
Windows access to more memory. You can enable the memory remapping feature in the BIOS by booting to
the system setup. See the User's Guide for your computer for instructions on how to boot to system setup on
your computer. The name for the memory remapping feature may be different for different hardware vendors.
This can be listed as memory remapping, memory extension, or something similar. Be aware that your
computer may not support the memory remapping feature.
• Change the AGP video aperture size in the BIOS settings
• If you use a memory standoff card to hold multiple memory modules on the computer, the system may require
specific configurations for this scenario. Therefore, the usable memory may be less than expected
Check possible issues with the physical RAM

• The problem may occur because there are issues with the physical RAM installed.
• Check whether you have bad memory modules
• To check whether you are experiencing this issue, turn off the computer, unplug the
computer, and then swap the order of the memory.
• Make sure that the memory arrangement is correct
COMMON MEMORY PROBLEMS

When you have a problem with memory, the cause is usually one of three things:
• Improper Configuration: You have the wrong part for your computer or did not follow the
configuration rules.
• Improper Installation: The memory may not be seated correctly, a socket is bad, or the socket may
need cleaning.
• Defective Hardware: The memory module itself is defective.
• The fact that many computer problems manifest themselves as memory problems makes
troubleshooting difficult. For example, a problem with the motherboard or software may produce a
memory error message.
TROUBLESHOOTING MEMORY: DEFECT

ISOLATION
PROCEDURES
• The following basic steps apply to almost all situations:
i. Make sure you have the right memory part for your computer. At the manufacturer’s Web site you can look up the part number.
Many memory manufacturers have configurators, which indicate the compatibilities of your module. If not, phone the memory
manufacturer, consult your computer manual, or phone the computer manufacturer.
ii. Confirm that you configured the memory correctly. Many computers require module installation in banks of equal-capacity
modules. Some computers require the highest capacity module to be in the lowest labeled bank. Other computers require that all
sockets be filled; still others require single-banked memory. These are only a few examples of special configuration requirements.
If you have a name-brand computer, visit Kingston’s Web site (www.kingston.com) or use our upgrade manual to look up
configuration rules specific to your computer. You can also contact technical support for your memory or computer manufacturer.
iii. Re-install the module. Push the module firmly into the socket. In most cases you hear a click when the module is in position. To
make sure you have a module all the way in the socket, compare the height of the module to the height of other modules in
neighboring sockets.
• Swap modules. Remove the new memory and see whether the problem disappears. Remove the old memory,
reinstall the new, and see whether the problem persists. Try the memory in different sockets. Swapping reveals
whether the problem is a particular memory module or socket, or whether two types of memory aren’t
compatible.
• Clean the socket and pins on the memory module. Use a soft cloth to wipe the pins on the module. Use a PC
vacuum or compressed air to blow dust off the socket. Do NOT use solvent, which may corrode the metal or
prevent the leads from making full contact. Flux Off is a cleaner used specifically for contacts. You can
purchase it at electronics or computer equipment stores.
• Update the BIOS. Computer manufacturers update BIOS information frequently and post revisions on their Web
sites. Make sure you have the most recent BIOS for your computer. This applies especially when you have
recently installed new software or you are significantly upgrading memory.
MEMORY HIERARCHY
MODULE 5 – BIOS
CONTENTS
• BIOS Hardware/Software
• ROM Hardware and Shadowing
• Updating and Upgrading the BIOS
• Backing Up Your BIOS’s CMOS Settings
• BIOS Error Messages
• General BIOS Boot Text Error Messages
BIOS HARDWARE/SOFTWARE
The basic input/output system (BIOS) is an important motherboard component that is commonly soldered to the
motherboard,
The BIOS has the following functions:
i. Holds and executes power-on self-test (POST)—a program that identifies, tests, and initializes basic
hardware components.
ii. Holds a basic routine called a bootstrap program that locates an operating system and launches it,
allowing the operating system to then control the system.
iii. Holds Setup, which is a program that allows settings related to the display, date/time, processor,
memory, and drives to be viewed and managed. Other names used for Setup include BIOS Setup,
System Setup, and CMOS Setup.
iv. Turns control over to an adapter’s onboard BIOS so that the card can initialize during the computer boot
process.
UEFI
• Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), and sometimes known as simply EFI, is
the interface between the operating system and firmware, which can be the traditional
BIOS, or UEFI can replace the BIOS. The traditional BIOS has roots in the original PC;
the BIOS always checks for certain things, such as a keyboard, before allowing the
system to boot. A traditional BIOS made configuring kiosks and other touch screen
technologies difficult. UEFI fixed these issues.
CMOS MEMORY
• Settings changed in system BIOS are recorded and stored in complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) found in the motherboard chipset (south bridge or I/O controller
hub). CMOS is memory that requires a small amount of power, provided by a small coin-
sized lithium battery when the system is powered off. The memory holds the settings
configured through BIOS. Part of the BIOS software routine checks CMOS for
information about what components are supposed to be installed. These components are
then tested as part of the POST routine. POST knows what hardware is supposed to be in
the computer by obtaining the settings from CMOS. If the settings do not match, an error
occurs.
JUMPER
• is a small piece of plastic that fits over pins. A jumper can be used to enable or disable a
write-protecting the BIOS.
• the pins and jumper are much smaller in real life than what is shown. lar feature, such as
resetting the system Setup settings or
ROM SHADOWING
• A technique used to increase a computer's speed by using high-speed RAM memory in
place of slower ROM memory (RAM is about three times as fast as ROM). On PCs, for
example, all code to control hardware devices, such as keyboards, is normally executed in
a special ROM chip called the BIOS ROM. However, this chip is slower than the general-
purpose RAM that comprises main memory. Many PC manufacturers, therefore,
configure their PCs to copy the BIOS code into RAM when the computer boots. The
RAM used to hold the BIOS code is called shadow RAM.
UPDATING AND UPGRADING THE BIOS

• Updating the BIOS is recommended as standard maintenance of the computer. It can also
help resolve the following issues:
i. An available BIOS update resolves a specific issue or improves computer performance.
ii. The current BIOS does not support a hardware component or a Windows upgrade.
iii. HP support recommends installing a specific BIOS update.
BACKING UP YOUR BIOS’S CMOS SETTINGS

Print CMOS values
• The CMOS setup program may allow you to print the values of your CMOS setup. If available, it
is recommended you backup the CMOS values by printing a hard copy of the current CMOS
values. These values can then be re-entered if needed.
Third-party utility
• There are various utilities available on the Internet and sometimes from computer manufacturers
that allows you to make backups of your computer CMOS. These utilities are not always
compatible with all versions of CMOS, so be cautious.
UPDATE THE BIOS AUTOMATICALLY USING HP

SUPPORT ASSISTANT
• When a new BIOS update becomes available, HP Support Assistant can update your computer
automatically. HP computers with Windows come with HP Support Assistant (HPSA) installed.
i. In Windows, search for and open HP Support Assistant.
ii. If the app is not installed on your computer, download the latest version from the HP Support Assistant
website.
iii. On the My devices tab, find your computer, and then click Updates.
iv. Click Check for updates and messages to get the latest updates.
v. Wait while Support Assistant works.
vi. If a new BIOS update is available, click the check box next the BIOS update and any other updates you want
to install, and then click Download and install.
vii. When HP Support Assistant finishes, close the tool.
UPDATE THE BIOS MANUALLY FROM WITHIN

WINDOWS
i. Download a BIOS update from the HP website.
ii. Go to the HP Customer Support - Software and Driver Downloads page.
iii. Navigate to the product page for your computer.
iv. Select BIOS from the list that displays, and then review any available BIOS updates.
v. caution: Read the Details section to confirm that the BIOS update is more recent then
the one installed and that it applies to your computer. Installing the wrong BIOS could
cause your computer to stop working.
• If you do not see a BIOS update listed for your computer, no update is currently
available.
• If there are multiple BIOS updates available, identify the motherboard installed on your
computer using the information you wrote down from the System Information utility in
the previous step.
• If you find a BIOS update, click Download, and then click Save.
• Browse to the folder or desktop where you saved the downloaded BIOS update file, and
then double-click the file name (example: sp12345) to start the installation.
UPDATE THE BIOS MANUALLY FROM A USB

FLASH DRIVE (OUTSIDE OF WINDOWS)
• If Windows does not open, use a second working computer with Internet access to download the BIOS update. Copy the update file to a
USB flash drive and install it on the original computer.
• caution: If BitLocker protection is enabled on your computer, the BitLocker recovery key is required to start your computer after the
BIOS update. Windows might need to be reinstalled if you do not have the key or the key is not recognized after the update.
i. Step 1: Gather the required information about your computer
ii. To find the correct BIOS update, obtain the computer Product name, SKU number, the system board ID, BIOS version/revision, and
the processor type.
iii. Turn on the original computer with the issue, and then immediately press the Esc key repeatedly until the Startup Menu opens
iv. Press the F1 key to open System Information.
v. Write down the Product Name, SKU Number, the System Board ID, BIOS verStep
2: SET UP THE BIOS UPDATE ON A USB FLASH

DRIVE
• Use a second computer with Internet access to create a BIOS recovery USB flash drive.
• Insert a blank USB flash drive into an available port on the second computer.
• Go to the HP Customer Support - Software and Driver Downloads page.
• Navigate to the product page for your computer.
• Select BIOS from the list that displays, and then review any available BIOS updates.
• caution: Read the Details section to confirm that the BIOS update is more recent then the one installed
and that it applies to your computer. Installing the wrong BIOS could cause your computer to stop
working.
• If you do not see a BIOS update listed for your computer, no update is currently available.
• If there are multiple BIOS updates available, identify the motherboard installed on your computer
using the information you wrote down from the System Information utility in the previous step.
• If you find a BIOS update, click Download, and then click Save.
• Browse to the folder or desktop where you saved the downloaded BIOS update file, and then
double-click the file name (example: sp12345) to start the installation.
• The computer might beep, turn off and on the display or cooling fans, or display a blinking power
light. This is normal.
• caution: Do not turn off or restart the computer until the update process completes.sion/revision,
and the Processor Type.
BIOS ERROR MESSAGES

When a PC system is first powered on, the system runs a POST. If errors are encountered during the
POST, you usually see a text error message displayed onscreen. Errors that occur very early in the
POST might happen before the video card is initialized.
These types of errors can't be displayed, so the system uses two other alternatives for communicating
the error message.
 One is beeping—the system beeps the speaker in a specific pattern that indicates which error
has occurred.
 The other alternative is to send a hexadecimal error code to I/O port address 80h, which can be
read by a special card in one of the bus slots.
When the ROM BIOS is performing the POST, in most systems the results of these tests are
continuously sent to I/O Port 80h so they can be monitored by special diagnostics cards called POST
cards.
 These tests sometimes are called manufacturing tests because they were designed into the system for testing
systems on the assembly line without a video display attached.
 The POST cards have a two-digit hexadecimal display used to report the number of the currently executing
test routine. Before executing each test, a hexadecimal numeric code is sent to the port and then the test is
run. If the test fails and locks up the machine, the hexadecimal code of the last test being executed remains on
the card's display.
GENERAL BIOS BOOT TEXT ERROR MESSAGES

• During the boot process, the bootstrap loader routine in the motherboard ROM BIOS reads the first physical sector of each
of the bootable drives or devices, which is cylinder 0, head 0, sector 1 in CHS mode or logical block address 0 in LBA
mode.
• The code from the first sector is loaded into RAM, and the last two bytes are checked to see whether they match a signature
value of 55AAh. If the signature bytes match, that tells the ROM that the first sector contains a valid MBR and that the
ROM can continue by transferring control to the MBR code.
• If the last two bytes of the first physical sector do not match 55AAh, the ROM continues by checking the first physical
sector of the next bootable device in the boot sequence until it either finds one with a valid MBR or runs out of devices to
check.
• If after checking all the drives or devices in the boot sequence, none are found to have the proper signature bytes indicating
a valid MBR, the ROM invokes an interrupt 18h that calls a subroutine that displays an error message. The specific text or
wording of the message varies according to the ROM manufacturer and version.
• When a system has problems starting, it might display error messages at startup. These
messages might come from the system BIOS (ROM BIOS or UEFI firmware) or might be
generated by Windows. Typical error messages displayed by the BIOS include the following:
i. Invalid system disk

ii. Boot failure
iii. Hard disk error
iv. NT boot loader missing
v. Missing operating system
• These and similar messages indicate that the BIOS or UEFI firmware chip on the
motherboard cannot locate startup files for your operating system. Possible reasons can
include the following:
i. A nonbootable drive containing media is listed first in the boot order (BIOS/UEFI).
ii. The computer’s system drive is not properly identified (BIOS/UEFI).
iii. Data or power cables from the internal hard disk to the motherboard are loose or have
failed (hardware).
iv. The drive has failed (hardware).
THE END

MEMORY

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Mr.

ABIHUDI S MOTE 02/08/2019

MEMORY BASICS (ROM, RAM, CACHE)

Secondary Memories3 (Secondary Storages)

RAM is divided into two major types:

i. DRAM is less expensive but slower than SRAM.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

• Read-only memory, or ROM, is a type of memory that can permanently or semi

ROM CHIP TYPES

Memory Physical Packaging

• RIMMs are used in older Intel Pentium 4 computers.

CONVENTIONAL (BASE) MEMORY

TOTAL INSTALLED MEMORY VERSUS TOTAL

• Check the system configuration settings

• Update the system BIOS

Check BIOS settings

Check possible issues with the physical RAM

COMMON MEMORY PROBLEMS

TROUBLESHOOTING MEMORY: DEFECT

UPDATING AND UPGRADING THE BIOS

BACKING UP YOUR BIOS’S CMOS SETTINGS

UPDATE THE BIOS AUTOMATICALLY USING HP

UPDATE THE BIOS MANUALLY FROM WITHIN

UPDATE THE BIOS MANUALLY FROM A USB

2: SET UP THE BIOS UPDATE ON A USB FLASH

BIOS ERROR MESSAGES

GENERAL BIOS BOOT TEXT ERROR MESSAGES

i. Invalid system disk

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