MEMORY

• Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily, like RAM (random
access memory), or permanently, like ROM (read-only memory). Memory devices utilize integrated circuits
and are used by operating systems, software, and hardware.
• Volatile memory loses its contents when the computer or hardware device loses power. Computer RAM is
an example of volatile memory. It is why if your computer freezes or reboots when working on a program,
you lose anything that wasn't saved.
• Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM, keeps its contents even if the power is lost.
EPROM is an example of non-volatile memory.
• Some memory devices can store and accessing information faster than others. When buying RAM, for
example, you can easily compare different options by looking at the DDR (double data rate) version. DDR4
RAM is about two times faster than DDR3 RAM. For a more specific indicator, RAM has a megahertz (MHz)
number next to it, indicating its exact speed, the higher the MHz, the faster the RAM speed.
• While the capacity of RAM determines the amount of information your device can handle at one time, the
speed at which the information is stored and accessed also varies between memory devices.
• As mentioned above, because RAM is volatile memory, when the computer loses power, anything stored in
RAM is lost. For example, while working on a document, it is stored in RAM. If its data was not previously
saved to non-volatile memory (e.g., the hard drive), the data would be lost when the computer loses power.
• It is common for new computer users to be confused by what parts in the computer are memory. Although
both the hard drive and RAM are memory, it's more appropriate to refer to RAM as "memory" or "primary
memory" and a hard drive as "storage" or "secondary storage."
• When someone asks how much memory is in your computer, it is often between 1 GB and 16 GB of RAM
and several hundred gigabytes, or even a terabyte, of hard disk drive storage. In other words, you always have
more hard drive space than RAM.
• Each device in a computer operates at different speeds, and computer memory gives your computer a place
to access data quickly. If the CPU had to wait for a secondary storage device, like a hard disk drive, a computer
would be much slower.

RAM

• RAM allows your computer to perform many of its everyday tasks, such as loading applications, browsing
the internet, editing a spreadsheet, or experiencing the latest game. Memory also allows you to switch
quickly among these tasks, remembering where you are in one task when you switch to another task. As
a rule, the more memory you have, the better.
 • When you turn on your computer and open a spreadsheet to edit it, but first check your email, you’ll have
used memory in several different ways. Memory is used to load and run applications, such as your
spreadsheet program, respond to commands, such as any edits you made in the spreadsheet, or toggle
between multiple programs, such as when you left the spreadsheet to check email. Memory is almost
always being actively used by your computer. If your system is slow or unresponsive, you may need a
memory upgrade. If you think you may need more memory, it’s easy to upgrade your desktop or laptop
RAM yourself.
• In a way, memory is like your desk. It allows you to work on a variety of projects, and the larger your desk,
the more papers, folders, and tasks you can have out at one time. You can quickly and easily access the
information without going to a filing cabinet (your storage drive). When you’re finished with a project, or
leaving for the day, you can put some or all the projects in the filing cabinet for safekeeping. Your storage
drive (hard drive or solid-state drive) is the filing cabinet that works with your desk to track your projects.

ROM

• ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as
bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.
• The advantages of ROM are as follows –
o Non-volatile in nature
o Cannot be accidentally changed
o Cheaper than RAMs
o Easy to test
o More reliable than RAMs
o Static and do not require refreshing
o Contents are always known and can be verified

TYPES OF MEMORY

• ROM (Read-only Memory)

o MROM (Masked ROM)
▪ The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of
data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are
inexpensive.
 o PROM or programmable ROM (programmable read-only memory) is a computer memory chip
that can be programmed once after it is created. Once the PROM is programmed, the information
written is permanent and cannot be erased or deleted. PROM was first developed by Wen Tsing
Chow in 1956. An example of a PROM is a computer BIOS in early computers. Today, PROM
in computers has been replaced by EEPROM.
▪ When the PROM is created, all bits read as "1." During the programming, any bit needing
to be changed to a "0" is etched or burned into the chip using a gang programmer. Below
is an example of a gang programmer from Advin that programs multiple ROM chips at
one time.
▪ If a PROM is programmed with an error or needs updated, the chip is discarded and a
new PROM is created, replacing the old chip. A variation of the PROM is an EPROM, a
PROM that can be erased and reprogrammed without being replaced.
o Short for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, EPROM is a non-volatile memory chip
that was invented by Dov Frohman in 1971 while at Intel that can only be read. If exposed to
ultraviolet light, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if needed, but otherwise does not accept or
save any new data. Hardware manufactures use EPROM when it may be needed that the data on
the EPROM needs to be changed. An EPROM chip is distinguishable by a small quartz crystal
(not glass) circle window that exposes the chip so that it be reprogrammed. The picture on this
page shows an Intel 8048 made by NEC and is an example of an EPROM chip.
▪ Today, EPROM chips are not used in computers. They were replaced by EEPROM chips.
o Short for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory, EEPROM is a PROM that can
be erased and reprogrammed using an electrical charge. EEPROM was developed by George
Perlegos while at Intel in 1978 and unlike most memory inside a computer, it remembers its data
without power.
▪ For the computer, the main EEPROM and BIOS is on the computer motherboard. Other
expansion cards and devices may have an EEPROM or ROM on them as well.
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
o Short for Extended Data Out, and alternatively called hyper page mode memory, EDO is a type
of memory developed in 1995 by Micron and was first used with Pentium computers. EDO allows
a CPU to access memory 10 to 15-percent faster the compatible Fast Page memory by not turning
off the data output drivers after the memory has removed the column address. An upgraded
variation of EDO memory is BEDO, although it was never widely used.
o SDRAM, which is short for Synchronous DRAM, is a type of memory that synchronizes itself
with the computer's system clock. Being synchronized allows the memory to run at higher speeds
than previous memory types and asynchronous DRAM and supports up to 133 MHz system bus
 cycling. Since 1993, this is the prevalent type of memory used in computers around the world. In
the picture below is an example of a SDRAM DIMM. The original type, named SDRAM, up to
the current type, DDR3, are all derivatives of the SDRAM memory type.
o Short for double data rate, DDR is memory that was first introduced in 1996 and has since been
replaced by DDR2. DDR utilizes both the rising and falling edge of the system clock, potentially
doubling the speed of the memory. Today, DDR technology is found on high-end video cards
and computer memory such as DDR-SDRAM.
o Short for double data rate two, DDR2 is the second generation of DDR memory that was released
in September 2003. DDR2 can operate at greater speeds than DDR, offers a greater bandwidth
potential, operates on less power, and generates less heat. Due to architectural differences, DDR2
memory modules are incompatible with DDR slots.
o Short for double data rate three, DDR3 is a type of DRAM (dynamic random-access memory)
released in June 2007 as the successor to DDR2. DDR3 chips have bus clock speed of 400 MHz
up to 1066 MHz, range in size from 1 to 24 GB, and consume nearly 30% less power than their
predecessors. DDR3 RAM sticks for a desktop computer have 240 pins. For a laptop computer,
DDR3 RAM sticks have 204 pins.
▪ These memory chips can only be installed on a motherboard that supports DDR3 memory
and are not backward compatible with DDR2 memory slots.
o Short for double data rate four, DDR4 is a type of system memory known as SDRAM and was
released in September 2014 as the successor to DDR3. DDR4 has bus clock speeds that range
from 800 to 1600 MHz and range in storage capacity from 4 to 128 GB per DIMM. DDR4 is also
more efficient at 1.2 V compared to DDR3's 1.5 to 1.65 V range.
o These memory chips can only be installed on a motherboard that supports DDR4 memory and
are not backward compatible with DDR3 memory slots.
o Short for single inline memory module, SIMM is a memory module developed by Wang
laboratories in 1983. The SIMM circuit board that holds six to nine memory chips per board, the
ninth chip usually an error checking chip (parity or non-parity). The SIMM was used with
computers using a 486, early Intel Pentium, and compatible processors. However, because the
Pentium is 64-bit and a SIMM is only 32-bits wide, they must be installed two at a time to work
properly.
o Short for dual in-line memory module, DIMM is a module containing a circuit board and one
more random-access memory chips. DIMMs have a 168-pin connector and, from the advent of
the Pentium processor, a 64-bit path. Because of the new bit path, DIMMs can be installed one at
a time, unlike SIMMs that would require installation in pairs.
 ▪ SO-DIMM, which is short for small outline dual in-line memory module, is available in
both a 72-pin and 144-pin configuration. SO-DIMMs are commonly utilized in laptop
computers. Below is an example picture of a 4 GB SODIMM memory stick from Crucial.
▪ DIMMs have separate contacts on each side of the board, which provides twice as much
data as a single SIMM.
▪ The command address and control signals are buffered on the DIMMs. With heavy
memory requirements, this buffering reduces the loading effort of the memory.
• Cache Memory
o Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
o The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
▪ Cache memory is faster than main memory.
▪ It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
▪ It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
▪ It stores data for temporary use.
o The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
▪ Cache memory has limited capacity.
▪ It is very expensive.

TYPES OF MEMORY (OTHER SOURCE)

• Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to the processor
than the computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because it is typically integrated
directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU.
• RAM. The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by the processor.
• Dynamic RAM. DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used by the data or program
code needed by a computer processor to function.
• Static RAM. SRAM retains data bits in its memory for as long as power is supplied to it. Unlike DRAM,
which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to be periodically
refreshed.
• Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically improve memory clock speed
to at least 200 MHz.
 • Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of DRAM that has a high-
bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous DDR2 and DDR3 versions. DDR4 RAM allows for
lower voltage requirements and higher module density. It is coupled with higher data rate transfer speeds and
allows for dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB.
• Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to transfer up to 1.6 billion bytes
per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the RAM controller, the bus that connects RAM to the
microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it.
• Read-only memory. ROM is a type of computer storage containing nonvolatile, permanent data that,
normally, can only be read and not written to. ROM contains the programming that enables a computer to
start up or regenerate each time it is turned on.
• Programmable ROM. PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user. It enables a user to tailor a
microcode program using a special machine called a PROM programmer.
• Erasable PROM. EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can be erased and re-used.
Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window designed into the memory chip.
• Electrically erasable PROM. EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed
repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs
do not need to be removed from the computer to be modified. However, an EEPROM chip must be erased
and reprogrammed in its entirety, not selectively.
• Virtual memory. A memory management technique where secondary memory can be used as if it were a part
of the main memory. Virtual memory uses hardware and software to enable a computer to compensate for
physical memory shortages by temporarily transferring data from RAM to disk storage.

HISTORY OF MEMORY

• In the early 1940s, memory was only available up to a few bytes of space. One of the more significant
signs of progress during this time was the invention of acoustic delay line memory. This technology
enabled delay lines to store bits as sound waves in mercury, and quartz crystals to act as transducers to
read and write bits. This process could store a few hundred thousand bits. In the late 1940s, nonvolatile
memory began to be researched, and magnetic-core memory -- which enabled the recall of memory after
a loss of power -- was created. By the 1950s, this technology had been improved and commercialized and
led to the invention of PROM in 1956. Magnetic-core memory became so widespread that it was the main
form of memory until the 1960s.
• Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, also known as MOS semiconductor memory, was
invented in 1959. This enabled the use of MOS transistors as elements for memory cell storage. MOS
memory was cheaper and needed less power compared to magnetic-core memory. Bipolar memory, which
used bipolar transistors, started being used in the early 1960s.
• In 1961, Bob Norman proposed the concept of solid-state memory being used on an integrated circuit
(IC) chip. IBM brought memory into the mainstream in 1965. However, users found solid-state memory
to be too expensive to use at the time compared to other memory types. Other advancements during the
early to mid-1960s were the invention of bipolar SRAM, Toshiba's introduction of DRAM in 1965 and
the commercial use of SRAM in 1965. The single-transistor DRAM cell was developed in 1966, followed
by a MOS semiconductor device used to create ROM in 1967. From 1968 to the early 1970s, N-type MOS
(NMOS) memory also started to become popularized.
• By the early 1970s, MOS-based memory started becoming much more widely used as a form of memory.
In 1970, Intel had the first commercial DRAM IC chip. One year later, erasable PROM was developed
and EEPROM was invented in 1972.