Chapter 7.

Application of
Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(1)

 Adiabatic, steady state, one-dimensional flow of

compressible fluid
 No shaft work and no change in potential energy
 Energy Balance Equation – 1st law
Steady state 0 0 0 0
d (mU ) CV  1 2  
   H  u  zg m   Q  W
dt  2   fs
Changes in enthalpy
 1 2
H  u   0 dH  udu directly go to
 2  changes in velocity
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(2)

 Mass balance equation – Continuity Equation

0
dmcv uA
 m  fs  0 d (m )  d ( )  0
dt V

dV du dA
  0
V u A
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(3)

 Thermodynamic Relations
dH  TdS  VdP
 Replace V in terms of S and P
 V   V  1  V  (eqn 3-2)
dV    dP    dS   
 P  s  S  P V  T  P
 V   V   T   S  Cp
          (eqn 6-17)
 S  P  T  P  S  P  T  P T
 V  VT
  
 S  P CP
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(4)

 Relation from physics

Velocity of sound in a medium
2  P 
c  V 
2
 is related with pressure
 V  S derivative w.r.t volume
with const.S

 V   V 
dV    dP    dS
 P  s  S  P
dV T V
 dS  2 dP
V CP c
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(5)

 Variables : dH, du, dV, dA, dS, dP

 Equations : four
dH  udu
dS, dA : independent
dV du dA
  0 Can develop equations of
V u A
other derivatives with
dS and dA
dH  TdS  VdP

dV T V
 dS  2 dP
V CP c
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(6)

 u 2 
u 2
(1  M 2 )VdP  1  TdS  dA  0
 C  A
 p 

 u 2 2 
 M 
 Cp   1 
udu   TdS   2 
dA  0
1 M 2
1 M 
 
 
 
M : Mach number = u/c
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
(7)

dP  u 2 
dS u 2
dA
(1  M 2 )V  1  T  0
dx   
C p  dx A dx
 u 2 2 
 M 
du  C p  dS  1  dA
u  T  2 
0
dx 1 M 2
dx  1  M  dx
 
 
 
According to second law, (dS/dx) >= 0
 Pipe Flow

 Pipe Flow : constant cross sectional area (dA/dx=0)

 u 2 
 1 
dP T C p  dS Subsonic flow :
  2 
dx V (1  M ) dx (1  M 2
)0
 
 
  Implies :
 u 2 2  dP
 M   0 Pressure drops
du  Cp  dS dx in the direction of flow
u  T
dx 1  M 2  dx du
   0 Velocity increases
  dx in the direction of flow
 
Pipe flow

 The velocity does not increase indefinitely.

 If the velocity exceeds the sonic value,
dP du
0 0 Supersonic flow
dx dx Shock wave and turbulence
Unstable flow
Nozzles

 Flow within a pipe or a duct (variable cross-

sectional area)
 Assume isentropic flow  reversible flow

dP u 2  1  dA
  2 
dx VA  1  M  dx
du u  1  dA
  2 
dx A  1  M  dx
Nozzles

Converging Diverging

Subsonic (M<1) Supersonic(M>1)

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA/dx - + - +

dP/dx - + + -

du/dx + - - +
Converging Nozzle

 Pressure Velocity

 Maximum obtainable velocity = speed of sound

 Increase in velocity requires increase in cross-sectional area
in diverging section
 Converging nozzle can be used to deliver constant flow into a
region of variable pressure
 P1  P2
 As p2 decreases, velocity increases and maximum value at
sonic velocity.
 Further decrease in p2 has no effect on velocity.
Converging / Diverging Nozzle

 Speed of sound is attained at the throat of

converging/diverging nozzle only when the pressure
at the throat is low enough that critical value of
P2/P1 is reached.

 See figure 7.1

Value of critial pressure ratio

dH  udu
dH  TdS  VdP udu  VdP

dS=0  Adiabatic , PV   const  P1V1

 1/ 
 P1V1 
V  
 P 

( 1) / 
P2
2P1V1   P2  
u2  u1  2  VdP 
2 2
1    
  1   P1  
P1 
Value of critical pressure ratio

( 1) / 
P2
2P1V1   P2  
u2  u1  2  VdP 
2 2
1    
  1   P1  
P1 
Critical value  u=c
u1  0
2  P 
u2  c  V 
2 2
 u22  P2V2
 V  S

 P  P P2  2   1
   
 V  S V P1    1
u22  P2V2
Throttling Process

 Throttling Process : Orifice , Partly closed valve,

porous plug, …
 Primary result : pressure drop
H  0, H 2  H1

 For ideal gases, H=H(T) and no change in T

 For real gases, slight change in T
 Example 7.5 Joule-Thompson Coefficient

 Temperature change resulting from a throttling a

real gas.
 Joule-Thompson coefficient

 T 
  
 P  H
Joule/Thomson Coefficient and other
properties

 T 
  
 P  H
1
 T   T   H   H   H 
           
 P  H  H  P  P T  T  P  P T

1  H 
   
CP  P T
J-T coeff. comes from the
pressure dependence of H
Joule/Thomson Coeff. from PVT relation

 H   V 
  V T 
 P T  T  P
With Cp and PVT
 H  RT 2  Z 
     relation , any
 P T P  T  P
property can be
RT 2  Z  predicted.
  
C P P  T  P
7.2 Turbines (Expanders)

 Expansion of gas  Production of Work

 Internal Energy  Kinetic Energy  Work
(
T / P )
1

Ws

2
 Turbines (Expanders)

 Heat effects are negligible, Inlet and outlet velocity

changes are small
W s  m H  m ( H 2  H1 )
Ws  H  ( H 2  H1 )
 Normally T1, P1 and P2 are given
 Maximum work : isentropic process (adiabatic
process)
Ws (isentropic )  (H ) S
Turbines (Expanders)

 Turbine Efficiency

Ws

Ws (isentropic )
H

(H ) S

 Turbine efficiency of properly designed turbine : 0.7

to 0.8
Turbines (Expanders)

H Adiabatic expansion process in a turbine or expander

H (H ) S
P1

P2
S
7.4 Compression Processes

 Compression Devices : Rotating blades,

Reciprocating pistions

Ws

1
Compressors

 Compressor efficiency : 0.7 to 0.8

Ws (isentropic )

Ws
(H ) S

H
Compressors

H Adiabatic compression process

(H ) S H
P1

P2
S