Lec - 13 Oxidation - Oxide Charges

Integrated Circuit Technology
Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya

Department of ECE
Indian Institute of Information Technology-Allahabad
Room No. 2221, CC-I
Telephone: 2131
Email: sitangshu@iiita.ac.in
Contents:
o Ion Implantation Process
o Introduction to VLSI Design o Annealing of Damages
o Bipolar Junction Transistor Fabrication o Masking During Implantation
o MOSFET Fabrication for IC o Lithography
o Crystal Structure of Si o Etching
Defects in crystal and crystal growth
o Wet Chemical Etching
Epitaxy
Dry Etching
Vapor Phase Epitaxy
Plasma Etching
Doping During Epitaxy
o Etching of Si, SiO2, SiN and other
Oxidation
materials
Kinetics o Plasma Deposition Process
Oxidation Rate Constants o Metalization
Doping Redistribution
Problems in Aluminium Metal
Oxide Charges o
o IC BJT-From Junction Isolation to LOCOS
Diffusion o Problems in LOCOS+Trench Isolation
Theory of Diffusion o Metal Gate vs Self Aligned Poly-gate
Diffusion-Infinite Source o MOSFET-Tailoring of Device Parameters
Actual Doping Profiles, Diffusion Systems o CMOS Technology
o Latch-up in CMOS
o BiCMOS Technology
Reading Materials:
a) VLSI Technology, S M Sze
b) VLSI Fabrication Principles, S K Gandhi
c) Fundamentals of Semiconductor Fabrication, G S May and S M Sze
Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015
Oxidation-Oxide charges
Let us see what do we mean by the quality of the oxide:
This can be known by visualizing the type of non-idealities or here charges that are present inside
the oxide.
Mobile Ion Charge (Qm)
SiO2
Na+
K+
Fixed Oxide
Oxide Trapped ++++++ +++++++++ Charge(Qf)
Charge(Qot) ---------------------
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Interface Trapped
Charge(Qit)
Si

the oxide.
Qm
Types of charges in oxide layer.
SiO2
Na+
K+
 Interface trapped charges, Qit
-due to mechanical damages, broken Si bonds, etc.
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
Qot ---------------------
SiO2
+
+ Si ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
+ Ec
+
+
Qit
+
+ Eg=1.12 eV for Si Si
Ev

the oxide.
Qm
SiO2
Na+
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
 Positive fixed charges, Qf Qot ---------------------
-due to incomplete oxidation. For example, when you
switch off the oxidizing species supply. ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

the oxide.
Qm
SiO2
Na+
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
 Positive/negative oxide trapped charged, Q ot

-due to exposure in radiation environment/avalanche injection Qit
Si

the oxide.
Qm
SiO2
Na+
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf

-due to exposure in radiation environment/avalanche injection Qit
Si
 Mobile ionic charges, Qm.
-Free to move inside the oxide, comes due to human body and
handling/contaminated water, etc.

Qm
How do you then minimize these charges:
SiO2
Lets talk about the mobile ionic charges, Qm, first. Na+
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
Qot ---------------------
The presence of Qm is going to response to gate voltage
applied at the gate of MOSFET. Depending on the polarity of ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
the gate voltage these positive ions are going to move back
and forth and will change the threshold voltage of the
Qit
MOSFET.
Si
This charge can be minimized and its reduction is very vital.

Qm
SiO2
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
Qot ---------------------
To remove or to fix this mobile ions is by doing chlorine
oxidation. ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Here one uses a small quantity of chlorine in the oxidizing

ambient. Qit
Si
This chlorine may be in the form of Cl 2 gas or in the form of
anhydrous HCl. But as you know these are hazardous. So, a
safer way to do this through Tri-ChloroEthylene (TCE).

Qm
SiO2
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
Qot ---------------------
TCE is a liquid and the common practice is oxygen is bubbled
through a container containing this, so that the gas that is ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
coming out of this container will be saturate with TCE vapor
and from there a small amount of Cl will be incorporated
during oxidation. Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
K+
How does this help fixing the mobile ions? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf
Qot ---------------------
Cl will react with the mobile ions to form their salts NaCl and
KCl which will be immovable. ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
K+
Chlorine oxidation is used to combating some major other ++++++ +++++++++

problems. Qf
Qot ---------------------
One such problem is Oxidation Induced Stacking Faults
(OISF): ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
K+

problems. Qf
Qot ---------------------
(OISF): ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
At the time of thermal oxidation of Si, (you know that oxidation

is taking place at the interface at the last, because the Qit
oxidizing species are moving inside), as the oxidation process Si
goes on, the oxidizing species move inside and this is where
the oxide is formed:

Qm
SiO2
K+

problems. Qf
Qot ---------------------
(OISF): ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
At the time of thermal oxidation of Si, (you know that oxidation

is taking place at the interface at the last, because the Qit
oxidizing species are moving inside), as the oxidation process Si
goes on, the oxidizing species move inside and this is where
the oxide is formed:
Thus the oxidation reaction is taking place at the interface,

finally.
Now what is there at the interface? Si-dangling bonds

Qm
SiO2
K+
OISF:
The interface has lots of Si-Si tetrahedral bonds. These Si-Si ++++++ +++++++++
bonds are breaking and new bonds of Si-O-Si are forming. Qf
Qot ---------------------
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
K+
OISF:
The interface has lots of Si-Si tetrahedral bonds. These Si-Si ++++++ +++++++++
bonds are breaking and new bonds of Si-O-Si are forming. Qf
Qot ---------------------
But, as this interface is the last one to get oxidized, there is a
possibility that even though the Si-Si binds are broken, they ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
still have not found the time to react with the oxygen, to form
new bonds with oxygen.
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
K+
OISF:
Thus, in a practical case, at the end of the oxidation, it is ++++++ +++++++++
found that in the Si-SiO2 interface, there will be a large Qf
Qot ---------------------
number of Si interstitials.
Now a fraction of these Si interstitial will moves into the bulk of ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
the Si crystal.
In the bulk of the Si crystal, there may be some defects due to Qit
the crystal formation process, mechanical damages, growth Si
hillocks during epitaxy process, etc. and these Si interstitials
will getter or coalesce there to form nucleation site for the fault
formation.

Qm
Now, Cl oxidation is going to combat this situation:
SiO2
Na+
 The presence of Cl in the oxidizing ambient is going to K+
create a lot of Si vacancies at the surface.
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
Qot ---------------------
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
Na+
 So, if a lot of Si vacancies are present at the surface, then ++++++ +++++++++ Qf
these interstitial Si which are formed at the Si-SiO 2 Qot ---------------------
interface, they can move on to these vacant sites.
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
Na+
 They do not have to move into the defect site and cause ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
faults, they can simply be absorbed in these vacant sites
and preserve the regular crystalline structure.
Qit
Si

Qm
SiO2
Na+
 They do not have to move into the defect site and cause ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
faults, they can simply be absorbed in these vacant sites
and preserve the regular crystalline structure.
Qit
 So it is found that a small quantity of Cl during oxidation Si
helps not only in fixing the mobile ions, but also reduces
the OSIF.

Qm
Chlorination also improves the life time of carriers:
SiO2
Na+
 In addition to this, Cl oxidation also helps in improving the K+
life time of the carriers. Life time of the carriers in the
device is dependent on the deep impurities. Two such
impurities are Au and Pt. They are deep impurities which ++++++ +++++++++ Qf
may be present there at the time of crystal growth itself. Qot ---------------------
Now, Cl can form compounds with these deep impurities
and thereby improves the lifetime of the carriers.
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
 However, remember that Cl should be used in small
quantities. If Cl is larger than 10 15 /cm-2 then you will be
having halogen pitting. Larger chlorination is going to Qit
cause severe damages to the surface. Si

Qm
-due to exposure in radiation environment/avalanche SiO2
Na+
injection K+
Their introduction is not during the process steps, but they are
mainly introduced during after-processing tests. For example if ++++++ +++++++++ Qf
there is a radiation test that is needed to be done, then charges Qot ---------------------
are trapped in the oxides.
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
This may also come when the device is subjected to high field
operation which can initiate avalanche mechanism. Qit
Si
Exception is when you have an etching process with a
focussed ion beam, then there is a chance that oxide trap
charges can get into.

Qm
-due to mechanical damages, broken Si bonds, etc. SiO2
Na+
They are the main concern as they are spread over the K+
forbidden energy gap.
SiO2
+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
+ Si Qot ---------------------
+ Ec
+
+ ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
+
+ Eg=1.12 eV for Si
Qit
Ev Si
Depending on the Fermi level, they can be occupied or empty.

Qm
Na+
They are the main concern as they are spread over the K+
forbidden energy gap.
SiO2
+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
+ Si Qot ---------------------
+ Ec
+
+ ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
+
+ Eg=1.12 eV for Si
Qit
Ev Si
Depending on the Fermi level, they can be occupied or empty.
As the bands bends due to the charge transfer, the states in

the gap change their occupancies and thus their electronic
activity changes and correspondingly they affect the device
performance.

Qm
Na+
K+
++++++ +++++++++ Qf
 The origin of these interface trapped charges are Si Qot ---------------------
dangling bonds. At the end of the oxidation there will be
some Si-Si dangling bonds present at the interface, which
becomes the major source of interface trapped charges. ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
Na+
K+
How to reduce dangling bonds: ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Qot ---------------------
 One way to reduce these interface trapped charge is to
have a post oxidation annealing in hydrogen at
comparatively lower temperature~ 450 degC. Under such ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
case, passivation of Si occurs with H and dangling bonds
can get reduced.
Qit
Si

Qm
 Positive fixed charges, Qf
-due to incomplete oxidation. For example, when SiO2
Na+
you switch off the oxidizing species supply. K+
These are present with in 100 Å from the Si-SiO 2 interface,

++++++ +++++++++ Qf
where the oxidation is incomplete. The composition of the oxide
there is SiOx not SiO2 where x<2. Qot ---------------------
The presence of this fixed oxide charge changes the threshold ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
voltage of a MOS device-pushing it to a more negative side.
Because of this fixed oxide charge is positive, early n-MOS
were depletion type rather than enhancement type. Qit
Si

Qm
Na+
What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Qot ---------------------
 Oxidation at the interface is taking place at the end.
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Si

Qm
Na+

Qot ---------------------
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
 The wafers are at very high temperature 1000-1200 degC
and from there the wafer temperature is lowered either by
pulling out the wafer of by lowering the furnace temperature Qit
itself.
Si

Qm
Na+

Qot ---------------------
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
 The wafers are at very high temperature 1000-2000 degC
and from there the wafer temperature is lowered either by
pulling out the wafer of by lowering the furnace temperature Qit
itself.
Si
 Whatever be the case, sample temperature is being
lowered from the oxidation temperature to say 400 degC,
before we take out the actual wafer.

Qm
Na+

Qot ---------------------
 If this process of reducing the temperature is carried out in
an oxygen ambient, then some amount of oxidation will still ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
go on at the reduced temperature and since the oxidation
rates depends on the temperature, the oxidation rates will
be lower at lower temperature, the possibility of the Qit
oxidation being incomplete is greater at reduced
Si
temperature.

Qm
Na+

Qot ---------------------
 Therefore, if one reduces the temperature of the sample in
the oxidizing ambient itself, there one expects to have a ++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
very high large density of fixed oxide charges.
Qit
Si

Qm
Na+

Qot ---------------------
 This can be viewed from Deal Triangle (B E Deal).
++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx
Qit
Dry O2 Si
Qf /q
Y- axis is normalized to electronic charge, X axis is

in temperature 600 degC to 1200 degC
N2/Ar
600 1200
Temp (degC)

-due to incomplete oxidation. For example, when
you switch off the oxidizing species supply.
What happens when the oxidation is over? Dry O2

Qf /q
 Lets say that the oxidation is taking place at a very high
temperature- 1200 degC.
N2/Ar
600 1200
Temp (degC)
Deal Triangle


Qf /q
 From this temperature, the sample temperature is being
lowered and while reducing the temperature, still an
oxidizing ambient is being maintained.
N2/Ar
600 1200
Temp (degC)
Deal Triangle


Qf /q
 This means that there is the possibility of having incomplete
oxidation. So, as the path it traces, as you reduce the
temperature in dry O2 ambient.
N2/Ar
600 1200
Temp (degC)
Deal Triangle


Qf /q
 This means that there is the possibility of having incomplete
oxidation. So, as the path it traces, as you reduce the
temperature in dry O2 ambient.
This is the amount of fixed oxide charge, which is very high, N2/Ar
and that you will get~ 1012 cm-2.
600 1200
Temp (degC)
Deal Triangle


Qf /q
 To stop this incomplete oxidation, just at the 1200 degC,
you close the temperature as well as O 2 supply and start
flowing inert N2 or Ar gas.
N2/Ar
600 1200
Temp (degC)
Deal Triangle


Qf /q
 Whatever oxidation that has took pace, took place at very
high temperature of 1200 degC and since
Oxidation rates were much faster at higher temperature,

there were much less chance of having incomplete N2/Ar
oxidation.
600 1200
Temp (degC)
Deal Triangle


Qf /q

oxidation.
600 1200
So, one then follows this base line and you end up with Temp (degC)
much less fixed oxide charges. Deal Triangle


Qf /q

oxidation.
600 1200
This is the standard practice today. At the end of the oxidation

process, always before taking out the samples, nitrogen gas is
flushed for 15-20 mins. This is done to remove the traces of
oxygen before the temperature is lowered, so that when finally
the temperature is lowered there is no possibility of having
incomplete oxidation.

Qf /q

oxidation.
600 1200
This is the standard practice today. At the end of the oxidation

process, always before taking out the samples, nitrogen gas is
Qf can be now reduced to 1010 cm-2
flushed for 15-20 mins. This is done to remove the traces of
oxygen before the temperature is lowered, so that when finally
the temperature is lowered there is no possibility of having
incomplete oxidation.
Anodic oxidation:
This is basically an electrolytic process.
 Here you have an electrolytic bath. The electrolyte is ethylene

glycol in 0.04 normal potassium nitrate with 2.5% water and
additionally 1 or 2 gms of Aluminium nitrate to ensure better
uniformity of the oxide film.
 You use an electrolyte and the Si sample is used as the anode

and a noble metal such as Pt is used as cathode.
 Now you apply a voltage between these two electrodes and an

oxide film is formed on the sample.
Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015 See VLSI fabrication Principles By S K Gandhi
Anodic oxidation:
The reactions taking place are.
2H2O ↔ 2H + + 2OH -
Si + 2h+  Si 2+
Sub-reactions
Si 2+ + 2OH -  Si (OH)2
Si (OH)2  SiO2 + H2
Anodic oxidation:
2H2O ↔ 2H + + 2OH -
Si + 2h+  Si 2+
Sub-reactions
Si 2+ + 2OH -  Si (OH)2
Main overall reaction:

Si + 2h+ + 2H2O = SiO2 + H2 + 2H +
This H2 will evolve at the cathode as bubbles.
Anodic oxidation:
2H2O ↔ 2H + + 2OH -
Si + 2h+  Si 2+
Sub-reactions
Si 2+ + 2OH -  Si (OH)2
Main overall reaction:

Si + 2h+ + 2H2O = SiO2 + H2 + 2H +
This H2 will evolve at the cathode as bubbles.
One thing is quite clear that holes are important part in anodic
oxidation reaction.
In other words it is much easier to oxidize p-type Si as hole will

be much there inside Si.
Anodic oxidation:
If you have n-type Si, then, electrons are more, in that case you need
to shine light to bring more of excess hole-electron par injection.
You can also apply a high voltage, so that the junction between the Si
and electrolyte (it acts here as Si-metal junction) breakdown and
release of large amount of excess hole-electron generation.
Anodic oxidation:
Merits and de-merits:
1. This is a room temperature process.
2. However, the quality of oxide will not be very good. Unlike

thermal oxidation, where the oxidizing species move inside the Si
and prepare a fresh interface layer, here the oxide growth will be
on the outer part of the Si, i.e. Si moves out to react with the
oxidizing species. Thus the defects at interface remains as such.
3. This is a liquid electrolyte process more prone to

contamination.
Anodic oxidation:
Advantages of using Anodic oxidation:
1) One can use this as a diagnostic tool to measure the doping

profile in Si surface.
Suppose I want to find out this doping profile, then I need to know
about the sheet resistivity.
Anodic oxidation:
1) One can use this as a diagnostic tool to measure the doping

profile in Si surface. N
Suppose I want to find out this doping profile, then I need to know
about the sheet resistivity.
The information of N can be known if you can measure the sheet

resistivity of the sample.
x
How to do that?
Anodic oxidation:
You do that by:

N
Etching- You etch the surface and measure the sheet resistivity and
then etch again and measure the sheet resistivity again and take the
difference, you can get the information about N.
Anodic oxidation:
However, etching Si surface is very difficult task to do in a in precise

and controlled manner. N
So, what is done is you grow a thin layer of oxide and you know that
100 Å of oxide consumes 45 Å of Si, so you can etch 100 Å of
oxide.
This means that you have gone inside by 45 Å and again measure the
properties. x
Anodic oxidation:
N
 The only problem is you cannot use thermal oxidation to do so.
This is because, thermal oxidation is going to change the doping
profile. As you raise the temperature, the dopants will also move.
So, the result you will get will not be corresponding to the accurate
to the doping profile.
 In case of anodic oxidation, the doping profile is not affected as x

this is done at room temperature.
Anodic oxidation:
In case of anodic oxidation, the doping profile is not affected as this is

done at room temperature. N
Anodic oxidation:
 There is another advantage is that the thickness of the anodic

oxide is directly proportional to the voltage that has been
developed.
It follows a rule of 3 Å of oxide thickness per volt for Si. This means if
you see 10 V have developed, then the oxide thickness is 30 Å.
Si + 2h+ + 2H2O = SiO2 + H2 + 2H +
Anodic oxidation:
A variation of anodic oxidation is PLASMA OXIDATION.
In this case, you have the same apparatus, but instead of using liquid
electrolyte, you use O2 plasma.
Remember, plasma is a partially ionized gas.
Here, O2 is at low pressure and is converted to plasma and Si is used

as anode. Si then reacts with this O2 plasma to form SiO2.
As there is no liquid electrolyte, this is less prone to contamination and

the quality of oxide is relatively better than electrolytic oxide.
But in either case the properties of thermal oxide still dominates as

per purity is concerns.
How to detect the oxide thickness:
1. The simplest ways is to do by color prediction
You know this rule:
2nd

k
Where n is the refractive index = 1.46, d is the thickness,
and k = 1,2,3

2. Ellipsomerty: A monochromatic plane polarized light
is incident on the surface

3. CV measurements: Most useful technique. You will
get all information of the MOS device.
 ox A
C0 
tox

3. CV measurements: Most useful technique. You will
get all information of the MOS device.
4. Breakdown field strength. = 10 7 V/cm. This is
proportional to the density. Dry thermal oxide gives
you the higher BV.
BV (V/cm)
Pin hole problem in oxidation:
Pin hole means that there are microscopic holes present in the oxide.
For example, for some reason, the oxidation has not taken place and there is a pin hole present. So, when a
voltage is applied, the oxide cannot block this.
So, one has to detect this presence of pin holes.
This problem is going to be particularly sever for thin oxide as the nucleation of oxide may not be uniform all over.
So, there is more likelihood that pin holes are present there.
One way to find these pin holes are by subjecting the sample to a 10% copper sulphate solution.
While this is being done, copper will get plated around that pin hole, so afterwards by seeing through the
microscope, one can find out if pinholes are present or not.
SO, THIS IS ABOUT OXIDATION:
The take home concept is that “We use thermal oxidation in VLSI processing as the quality is much better than
anodic or plasma oxidation, although anodic or plasma oxidation are used to solve diagnostic issues.”
VLSI technology is compatible only with thermal oxidation.

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Integrated Circuit Technology

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya

Mobile Ion Charge (Qm)

++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

 Positive/negative oxide trapped charged, Q ot

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

 Positive/negative oxide trapped charged, Q ot

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Here one uses a small quantity of chlorine in the oxidizing

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Chlorine oxidation is used to combating some major other ++++++ +++++++++

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Chlorine oxidation is used to combating some major other ++++++ +++++++++

At the time of thermal oxidation of Si, (you know that oxidation

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Chlorine oxidation is used to combating some major other ++++++ +++++++++

At the time of thermal oxidation of Si, (you know that oxidation

Thus the oxidation reaction is taking place at the interface,

Now what is there at the interface? Si-dangling bonds

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

++++++ ++++++++++ SiOx

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Depending on the Fermi level, they can be occupied or empty.

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Depending on the Fermi level, they can be occupied or empty.

As the bands bends due to the charge transfer, the states in

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

How to reduce dangling bonds: ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

These are present with in 100 Å from the Si-SiO 2 interface,

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? ++++++ +++++++++ Qf

Y- axis is normalized to electronic charge, X axis is

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? Dry O2

Faculty-in-charge: Dr. Sitangshu Bhattacharya 2015

What happens when the oxidation is over? Dry O2