Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual: For B.E. I/II Semester

En g i n eer i n g Ph ysi c s Labo r at or y Man ual
For B.E. I/ II Semest er

As per Vi svesv ar aya Tec hn ol og i c al Un i v er si t y Syl l abus
Name o f t he St udent : _____________________________
Sec t io n and Br anc h : _____________________________
Ro l l No . o r U S N : _____________________________
Co nc eived, Pr epar ed and Designed by
K S Mahesh Lo hit h and V H Sat heeshkumar
Depar t ment o f Physic s
Sr i Bhagawan Mahaveer Jain Co l l ege o f Engineer ing
Jakkasandr a Po st , Kanakapur a Tal uk, Ramanagar am Dist .
5 6 2 1 1 2
Engineer ing Physic s Labo r at o r y Manual P a g e 2
Labo r at o r y Inst r uc t io ns
1. The st udent s should bring t he laborat ory manual , observat i on book,
calculat or et c., for each pract ical class.
2. The st udent s should come t o t he laborat ory wit h a good preparat ion t o
conduct t he experiment .
3. Laborat ory at t endance will form a part of t he int ernal assessment marks.
4. The recording of t he det ail s of t he measurement s, t abulat ion of readings
and cal culat ions must be first done in t he observat ion book. The st udent
should get t he same acknowledged by the concerned t eacher. Lat er t he
observat ions have t o be t ransferred t o t he manual and again it should be
signed by t he concerned t eacher. The st udent must submit t he record in
t he following week for correct ion.
5. Any st udent failing t o get t he result s evaluat ed i n t he same laborat ory
class will lose t he I nt ernal Assessment Marks for t hat experi ment .
6. The st udent shall be responsible for t he apparat us issued and shall t ake
necessary precaut ions in using t hem.
7. At t he end of t he semest er, a laborat ory t est wil l be conduct ed.
8. St ri ct di scipline should be maint ained inside t he laborat ory.
Index Sheet
Sl .
No.
Name of t he
Ex per i ment
Dat e
M
a
r
k
s
(
M
a
x

1
0
)
S
i
g
n
a
t
u
r
e
(
S
t
u
d
e
n
t
)
S
i
g
n
a
t
u
r
e
(
S
t
a
f
f
)
Cond uct i on Repet i t i on
1 Di f f r act i on g r at i ng
2 Tr ansi st or char act er i st i cs
3
Zener di ode
char act er i st i cs
4 St ef ans l aw
5 Fer mi ener gy
6
Ser i es and Par al l el LCR
Ci r cui t s
7 Pl anck s const ant
8
Ener gy gap of a
semi conduct or
9 Di el ect r i c const ant
10 B- H Cur v e
11
Ul t r asoni c i nt er f er omet er
( Demo)
Aver age
Not e : -
I f t he st udent r epeat s t he ex per i ment i n t he r egul ar l ab sessi on du e t o
unsat i sf act or y r esul t s t hen t he max i mum mar k s i s 8.
I f t he st udent f ai l s t o at t end t he l ab, h e/ she w i l l be al l ow ed t o conduct t he
ex per i men t how ever no hel p i s pr ovi ded an d t he max i mum mar k s w i l l be 5.
Obser vat i ons:
m
m
Divisions Scale Vernier of No Total
Division Scale Main one of Value
____ __________
N
1
C Constant Grating
____ __________ Grating on meter per Lines of Number N
.
Count Least
= = =
= =
= = =
Direct Reading: R
0
= MSR + ( CVSD x LC) =
Spect r al
Li nes
Spect romet er Readings Angle of min.
devi at ion
D= R~ R
0
(deg)
Wavelengt h of
t he color
( m)
MSR CVD
Tot al Reading
R= MSR + (CVSD x LC)
Yellow
2
Yellow
1
Gr een
Blue
Violet
1
Cal cul at i o ns:
1. Dif f r ac t io n Gr at ing
Ai m: To det ermi ne t he wavel engt h of t he prominent spect ral li nes of t he mer cury spect rum
usi ng a diffr act ion grat ing.
Appar at u s: Spect romet er, spi ri t l evel , mercury l amp, grat i ng, magni fyi ng l ens et c.
For mu l a: The wavel engt h of a spect r al line i s given by,
m
n
D
CSin
=
2
2
: wavel engt h of the spect ral line ( m)

N : number of li nes per met er on gr at ing
C : gr at i ng const ant = 1/ N ( m)
D: angl e of mi ni mum devi at ion for a spect r al l ine ( degr ee)
n : order of t he spect r um ( 1 = n )
Pr ocedur e: Prel i minary adj ust ment s ar e done for t he spect romet er. The spect romet er i s
pl aced i n front of t he sodium vapor l amp and i t s posi t ion i s so adj ust ed t hat t he coll i mat or sli t i s
illumi nat ed wi t h sodium l i ght whi ch i s confir med by vi ewi ng t he sli t t hrough the coll i mat or. The
t el escope i s br ought in line wi t h t he coll imat or. The rack and pi ni on arrangement of t he
colli mat or i s adj ust ed unt il clear i mage of t he sli t i s seen t hrough the t el escope. The gr at ing i s
mount ed on t he grat i ng t abl e using grat i ng holder. The t el escope i s rot at ed ei t her t o t he r i ght
or t o t he l eft until t he spect r al l ines of fi rst order spect rum ar e seen. Now t he grat i ng i s set t o
t he mini mum devi at i on posi ti on. The vert i cal crosswi re of t he t elescope i s set t o one of t he
edges of Yell ow
2
li ne. The spect romet er r eadi ng i s not ed. The same i s repeat ed f or Yellow
1
,
Green, Blue and Vi ol et l ines by adj ust ing t he crosswi re for t he same side edges ( R) . The Cent r al
Bri ght Maxi mum i s focused. The ver t i cal cross wi re i s set on t he Cent ral Bri ght Maxi mum and
t he readi ng i s not ed ( t he Di rect Readi ng R
0
) . The readi ngs ar e t abul at ed. The di ff erence i n t he
reading R and R
0
for t he each col or gi ves t he angl e of mi nimum devi at i on ( D) for t he
corr esponding color. The grat ing const ant i s det er mi ned gi ven t he val ue of number of lines per
met er on t he gr at i ng. The wavelengt h of t he spect r al l ine i s cal cul at ed usi ng t he formul a.
m
n
D
Sin C
=
2
2
Resu l t : The wavel engt hs of the spect r al li nes i n t he mer cury spect r um ar e,
Yellow
2
: ________ m,
Yellow
1
: ________ m,
Green : ________ m,
Blue : ________ m,
Viol et
1
: ________ m.
Obser vat i ons:
I nput Char act er i st i cs Out put Char act er i st i cs
Dependence of
B
I on
BE
V at const ant
CE
V Dependence of Ic on
CE
V at const ant
B
I
Cal cul at i o ns:
Knee vol t age for Base Emi t t er Juncti on = V
K
= _____V
Current Ampl ifi cat ion Fact or:
1 2
1 2
B B
C C
B
C
I I
I I
I
I
= = = ________
Current Gain in CB Mode:
+
=
1
= = ________
BE
V
( V)
CE
V = 2V
CE
V
( V)
1 B
I = 25 A
I
C
( mA)
2 B
I = 50 A
I
C
( mA)
B
I ( A )
2. Tr ansist o r Char ac t er ist ic s
Ai m: To st udy t he Common Emit t er input and out put I -V charact eri st i cs of t he gi ven t ransi st or
and hence t o det ermi ne t he knee vol t age and t he t r ansi st or paramet er s and .
Appar at u s: Tr ansi st or, vari abl e DC power supply, mi cro- ammet er, mi ll i- ammet er, vol t met er.
For mu l a: Current Ampli fi cat ion Fact or
B
C
I
I
=
Where
C
I - Change in coll ect or current i n mil i ampere
B
I - Change i n base curr ent in mi cro amper e
DC current gain in CB mode
+
=
1
Pr ocedur e: The emi t t er, base and coll ect or t er mi nal s of a t r ansi st or ar e i dent i fi ed. The
measuring el ect ri cal I nst rument s are checked for good wor ki ng condi ti ons. The ci rcuit
connect ions are made as shown in t he di agram. For every char act eri st i c, before t he ci rcui t is
cl osed, t he pot ent i omet er knobs must be set t o read t he mi ni mum.
I nput ch ar act er i st i cs
The col l ect or emi t t er vol t age
CE
V i s set t o 2V by varying the bi asi ng vol t age
CC
V and i s kept
const ant . Then t he base emi t t er vol t age
BE
V is increased f rom zer o in suit able st eps by var ying
t he bi asi ng vol t age
BB
V and corr espondi ng base curr ent I
B
i s not ed fr om t he mi cro- ammet er.
All r eadi ngs are t abul at ed. A pl ot of
B
I ver ses
BE
V i s made. The Knee vol t age i s measured by
t aki ng t he X- int ercept of t he ext r apol at ed li near port ion of t he curve.
Ou t put char act er i st i cs
The base current I
B
is set t o 25 A by var yi ng t he vol t age
BB
V . Then t he col l ect or emi t t er
vol t age
CE
V i s vari ed in sui t abl e st eps from zero t o 5V and t he correspondi ng coll ect or current s
I
C
are r ecorded from t he mil i- ammet er. The pr ocedur e i s repeat ed for
B
I = 50 A by adj ust i ng
V
BB
. The r eadi ngs ar e t abulated. A plot of
C
I ver sus
CE
V i s made f or each val ue of
B
I .
1 C
I and
2 C
I ar e det ermi ned from t he out put charact eri st i cs. The current ampl i ficat i on fact or and
current gai n are cal cul at ed using t he above for mul a.
Resu l t :
Knee vol t age =
........
V
Curr ent Ampl ifi cat ion Fact or = ... .
Current gain in CB mode = .....
Obser vat i ons:
Fr om Gr aph:
The Forward knee vol t age ( V
k
) = ...... V
The Zener breakdown volt age (
z
V ) = ...... . V
For w ar d Bi as
F
V i n V
F
I mA
Rev er se Bi as
R
V in V
R
I mA
3. Zener Dio de Char ac t er ist ic s
Ai m: To st udy t he I - V charact eri st ics of a Zener diode, and hence det ermi ne t he Knee vol t age
and Breakdown volt age.
Appar at u s: Zener di ode, Power supply, vol t met er and ammet er.
Pr ocedur e: The N- Type and P- Type sect i ons of t he gi ven zener diode ar e i denti fi ed. The bl ack
band mar ked on t he zener di ode represent s N- t ype sect i on. The measuri ng el ect ri cal
inst rument s are checked for good working condi tions. The circui t connect i ons are made as
shown i n t he di agram. For every charact eri sti c, before t he ci rcui t i s cl osed, t he pot ent i omet er
knobs must be set t o read mi ni mum.
For w ar d Bi as
The P- t ype sect i on and t he N- t ype sect i on of t he zener di ode are connect ed t o t he posi ti ve and
negat i ve t ermi nal s of t he bat t er y r espect i vel y. The power suppl y i s swi t ched on and t he appli ed
for ward vol t age V
f
i s increased i n sui t abl e st eps fr om zero volt t o a maxi mum of 1V and t he
corr esponding current s t hrough t he diode ar e not ed. The readi ngs are t abul at ed. A pl ot of I
f
ver sus V
f
i s made i n t he fi rst quadr ant choosing a sui t abl e scal e. Knee vol t age ( V
k
) i s cal cul at ed
from t he X- int ercept is obt ained by ext rapol at ing t he li near port ion of t he curve.
Rever se Bi as
The P- t ype sect i on and t he N- t ype sect i on of t he zener di ode ar e connect t o t he negat i ve and
posi t i ve t ermi nal s of t he bat t ery respect i vel y. The power suppl y i s swi t ched on and t he appli ed
rever se vol t age V
r
i s i ncreased in sui t abl e st eps fr om zero vol t t o a maxi mum of 5V and t he
corresponding reverse current s ( I
r
) t hrough t he di ode are not ed. The r eadi ngs are t abul at ed. A
pl ot of I
r
Vs V
r
i s made in the t hi rd quadrant choosing a sui t abl e scal e. Breakdown vol t age V
B
i s
calcul at ed fr om t he X- int ercept i s obt ai ned by ext r apol ati ng t he li near port ion of t he curve.
Resu l t :
The Forward knee vol t age ( V
k
) = ...... V
The Zener breakdown volt age (
z
V ) = ...... . V
Engineer ing Physic s Labo r at o r y Manual P a g e 1 0
Obser vat i on:
Cal cul at i on:
The slope of t he curve = S =
BC
AB
=........
Trail
No.
V
vol t
I
amper e
I
V
R =
VI P =
wat t
P
10
log R
10
log
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4 . St ef ans Law
Ai m: To verif y St ef ans l aw of Bl ackbody radi at ion by st udyi ng t he vari at i on power di ssi pat ed
across t he bul b as a f unct i on of resi st ance.
Appar at u s: El ect ri c bul b, rheost at , power supply, vol t met er and ammet er et c.
For mu l a: E = T
4
E i s t he rat e at whi ch t he energy emi t t ed fr om t he uni t surface area of a Bl ack- Body Wm
- 2
.
is St ef ans const ant Wm
- 2
K
- 4
.
T i s t he Absolut e t emper at ure i n K.
Pr ocedur e: The el ect ri cal connect ions ar e made as shown in t he ci rcui t di agram. The rheost at
i s adj ust ed so t hat a maxi mum val ue of r esi st ance i s i ncorporat ed i n t he ci rcui t . The vol t age
source i s set t o a maxi mum 12 V. The vol t age across t he bul b i s vari ed i n sui t abl e st eps by
varyi ng the rheost at and t he corr esponding current i s al so not ed. Using the dat a of V and I t he
power ( P) di ssi pat ed across t he bul b and t he resi st ance of t he bul b fil ament ( R) are det ermi ned.
Log P and Log R are al so det ermi ned. The readi ngs ar e t abul at ed. A pl ot of Log P versus Log R
i s made. The pl ot must be a st r ai ght l ine. The Slope of t he curve i s det ermi ned whi ch verifi es
t he St ef ans l aw of bl ackbody radi at i on.
[ Not e: The bulb in t he experi ment i s anal ogous t o a bl ackbody. The bul b emi t s radi at ion when
heat ed el ect ri cal l y so as a bl ack body when heat ed. Thus t he power di ssi pat ed across t he bulb
( P) i s not hi ng but t he emi ssi ve power ( E) . Hi gher t he t emperat ure ( T) of t he fil ament hi gher will
be t he resi st ance resul ting in hi gh di ssipat ion of energy. Thus `T could be repl aced by `R in t he
St efans l aw. Thus we get
4 4
CR P R P = Here i s C i s a const ant of proport ionali t y, t aking Logari t hm on bot h t he
si des we get
R Log C Log P Log 4 + =
Thi s i s of t he for m Y= c + m X. Thus t he sl ope of the cur ve obt ai ned by plot ting Log P agai nst
Log R verifi es St efans l aw of Bl ack body radi at ion.]
Resu l t : The sl ope of t he st r ai ght l ine i s gi ven by ....... and hence t he St ef ans l aw i s
veri fi ed.
Obser vat i on:
Lengt h of t he copper wi re = L ...... m
Di amet er of t he copper wi re d =......m
Radi us of the Copper wi re r= ......m
Densi t y of copper = 8960
3
/ m Kg
Area of cross sect i on of copper wi re
2
r A = =
2
m
Tr i al
No.
Temper at ur e
i n
0
C
Temper at ur e
T ( ) 273 + = t K
Bal anci ng
l engt h ( ) l cm
Resi st ance
( )
=
l
Xl
R
100
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Slope of t he curve fr om t he graph
BC
AB
S = =
L
AS
x
E
f
19
15
10 6 . 1
10 36 . 1
= eV
=
= ....... eV
5 . Fer mi Ener gy
Ai m: To det ermi ne t he Fermi energy of copper usi ng met er bri dge.
Appar at u s: Met er Bri dge, copper coi l, connect ing wir es, t her momet er, gal vanomet er , power
supply, wat er bat h et c.
For mu l a:
L
AS
x
E
f
19
15
10 6 . 1
10 36 . 1
= eV
Where,
f
E Fermi energy of copper ( eV)
Densi t y of copper ( Kgm
- 3
)
A Area of cross sect i on ( m
- 2
)
L Lengt h of copper wi re (m)
S Sl ope
BC
AB
of t he curve pl ot t ed R versus T
Pr ocedur e: The ci rcui t connect i ons for t he met er bri dge are made as shown in t he ci rcui t
di agram. The Copper coi l i mmersed i n wat er bat h i s connect ed across t he first gap of t he met er
bri dge and a st andard resi st ance box across t he second gap. The pl ug key i n t he ci rcui t i s
cl osed and a sui t abl e resi st ance ( X) i s unplugged t o obt ain bal ancing l engt h around 50 cm.
The Copper coi l i s uniforml y heat ed wi t h t he help of wat er bat h. The t emper at ure of t he Copper
coil i s i ncreased up t o 95C and t hen al lowed t o cool . As t he t emper at ure of t he coil r educes,
t he bal ancing l engt h i s det ermi ned for every 4C reduct i on in t emper at ure fr om 90C. The
resi st ance of t he coil at a gi ven t emper at ure is det ermi ned using t he for mul a
( )

=
l
Xl
R
100
The readi ngs are t abul at ed. A pl ot of Resist ance of t he Copper coil as a funct ion of
Temper at ure i s made from t he experi ment al dat a. The sl ope ( S) of t he curve i s det ermi ned.
Gi ven t he di amet er ( d) of t he ci rcul ar cross- sect i on of t he Copper wire i s det er mined. Gi ven t he
length of t he copper wir e (L) and Densit y of Copper ( ) t he Fermi energy i s cal cul at ed usi ng t he
formul a.
L
AS
x
E
f
19
15
10 6 . 1
10 36 . 1
= eV
Resu l t : Fermi energy of the copper wire i s
f
E =.....eV
Observation: Series and Parallel L-C-R circuits
Resi st ance R = ; Capaci t ance of capaci t or= C = F
Fr equency
f
KHz
Seri es Parall el
Current
( ) I mA
Current
( ) I mA
Series Circuit:
Resonance frequency
r
f = .Hz
Inductance
C f
L
r
2 2
4
1
= =
= H
Bandwidth
1 2
f f f =
= .Hz
Quality Factor
1 2
f f
f
Q
r
f
=
= .
Parallel Circuit:
Resonance frequency
r
f = .Hz
Inductance
C f
L
r
2 2
4
1
= =
= H
6 . Ser ies and Par al l el Reso nanc e
Ai m: To st udy t he fr equency response of a seri es and parall el LCR ci rcui t s and hence t he
det ermi nat ion of Coeffi ci ent of self induct ion of t he induct or used, resonant frequency, band
wi dt h, and quali t y fact or of t he ci rcui t
Appar at u s: An audi o si gnal generat or , Resi st or , capaci t or , induct or and mill i- ammet er.
For mu l a: Coeffi ci ent of self I nduct i on
C f
L
r
2 2
4
1
= H
Her e C i s capaci t ance of t he capaci t or in F, and f
r
i s t he resonant frequency in Hz.
Bandwi dt h
1 2
f f f = Hz
Her e f1 and f2 are t he lower and upper cut off frequenci es or hal f power frequenci es i n Hz.
Qual it y Fact or
1 2
f f
f
Q
r
f
=
Pr ocedur e:
Ser i es LCR ci r cui t
Circui t connect i ons are made as shown in t he fi gure. The AC si gnal generat or is swi t ched on.
The curr ent i s measured as a funct ion of fr equency fr om 100Hz t o 20 KHz in sui t abl e st eps. The
readings ar e t abul at ed. A plot of Current agai nst Fr equency i s pl ot t ed. The frequency
corr esponding t o maxi mum curr ent ( Resonant fr equency) i s det er mi ned from t he graph. The
coeffi ci ent of self induct ance i s cal cul at ed usi ng t he above formul a. The Band wi dt h and Quali t y
fact or are det ermi ned usi ng the val ues of Half power frequenci es det ermi ned as shown in t he
model graphs.
Par al l el LCR ci r cui t
Circui t connect i ons ar e made as shown in t he figure. The AC sour ce i s swi t ched on. The current
i s measur ed as a function of fr equency from 100Hz t o 20 KHz i n suit abl e st eps. The readi ngs
ar e t abul at ed. A plot of Current against Frequency i s plot t ed. The frequency corresponding t o
maxi mum current ( Resonant frequency) i s det ermined from t he graph. The coeffi ci ent of sel f
induct ance i s cal cul at ed usi ng the above for mul a.
Resu l t :
Ser i es LCR:
Resonance Frequency ( f
r
) = ...... Hz
I nduct ance = ) (L ...... . H
Bandwi dt h = ) ( f ..... Hz
Qual it y Fact or = ) (
f
Q .......
Par al l el LCR:
Resonance Frequency ( f
r
) = ....... Hz
I nduct ance = ) (L ...... H
Obser vat i on:
LED Color
Wavelength
( in m)
Turn-On Voltage
(V
T
in V)
Energy of
Radiation
E=e V
T
(J)
Frequency of the
Radiation
= C/
(Hz)
1
2
3
4
5
The Slope of the Curve = Plancks constant =
BC
AB
h = . =....Js
Energy
Frequency
A
C
B
7. Pl anc ks Co nst ant
Ai m: To det ermi ne t he Pl ancks const ant using li ght emi t t ing di odes.
Appar at u s: Li ght Emi t ti ng Diodes of 5 dif ferent wavel engt hs, power supply and mul ti met er.
For mu l a: E = h
Here E i s the energy of t he phot on, J
h i s Pl ancks const ant , Js
i s t he fr equency of t he radi at i on s
- 1
.
Pr ocedur e: Circui t connect i ons are made as shown in t he ci rcui t di agr am. Power suppl y i s
swi t ched on aft er ensuring t hat t he pot ent i omet er knob i s set t o zero. Vol t age across t he fi rst
LED i s increased gr aduall y unt il i t j ust gl ows. The col or of t he li ght emi t t ed and Turn- On vol t age
(V
T
) are not ed. This i s repeat ed f or t he ot her f our LEDs. Energy of the l ight radi at ion i s
cal culat ed using t he equat i on E= e V
T
. Here `e i s t he charge on el ect ron 1.6 x 10
- 19
C. The
fr equency of t he li ght radi at ion i s det ermi ned using = C. Here `C i s t he veloci t y of li ght ( 3 x
10
8
ms
- 1
) and ` i s t he wavel engt h of li ght emi t t ed. The readi ngs are t abul at ed. A pl ot of
ener gy agai nst f requency i s made. Accor di ng t o Pl ancks Quant um t heory t he energy and
frequency r el at i onship for the radi at ion i s gi ven by E= h. Her e `h i s Pl ancks const ant . Thus, t he
sl ope of t he curve gi ves t he Pl ancks const ant .
[ Not e: LED i s P- N j unct i on made of heavi l y doped t ranspar ent semi conduct or. When i t i s
forward bi ased, i f the appl i ed vol t age i s hi gher t han t he knee vol t age t hen el ect rons and hol es
fr om N and P sect i ons recombi ne i n t he depl et ion region resul ting in t he emi ssi on of phot ons.
Thus LED glows wi t h char act er i st i c wavel engt h whi ch depends on t he composi ti on and condi t ion
of t he semi conduct or mat eri al used. When t he appli ed vol t age i s equal t o t he t urn on vol t age
t he LED j ust gl ows and t he energy of t he phot ons emi t t ed i s equal t o t he energy acqui red by
t he el ect ron from t he el ect ri c fi el d. Thus energy of t he phot on can be cal cul at ed fr om t he t urn
on vol t age knowi ng t he wavelengt h of t he emi t t ed radi at i on a pl ot of energy versus fr equency
can be made. Thus t he Pl ancks const ant can be det er mi ned. ]
Resu l t : The Pl anck`s Const ant i s gi ven by______________
Obser vat i ons:
Boltzmanns constant K =
1 23
10 38 . 1

JK
19
10 601 . 1
2 303 . 2

=
S K
E
g
eV
=
. eV
Sl.
No.
Temperature
t
0
C
Temperature in
T(kelvin)
Resistance
R in()
Log R
T
1
K
-1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Digital Multimeter
8. Ener gy Gap o f a Semic o nduc t o r
Ai m: To det er mi ne t he Ener gy gap of t he semi conduct or.
Appar at u s: Thermi st or , power supply, resi st or, vol t met er and mil li - ammet er.
For mu l a:
19
10 601 . 1
2 303 . 2

=
S K
E
g
eV
Where, =
g
E Energy gap of gi ven semi conduct or, eV
K = Bol t zmans const ant , 1.38 x 10
- 23
JK
- 1
S = Slope of t he graph.
Pr ocedur e: The ci rcui t connect ions are made as shown i n t he fi gure. An Ohmmet er i s
connect ed across t he t her mi st or and t he resi st ance of t he t hermi st or at t he room t emper at ure
i s not ed. Then t he t hermi st or i s i mmersed i n wat er bat h and heat ed t o a t emperat ure of 95C.
Then whil e cooli ng t he resi st ance of t he t hermi st or i s not ed from Ohmmet er f or differ ent
t emperat ures st art i ng from 90C til l 60C for every 4C reduct ion in t emper at ure. The readi ngs
ar e t abul at ed. A pl ot of Log R versus 1/ T i s made. Sl ope ( S) of t he curve i s det er mined. The
energy gap of t he gi ven semi conduct or i s calculat ed usi ng t he formul a.
19
10 601 . 1
2 303 . 2

=
S K
E
g
eV
[ Not e: Thermi st ors ar e made of semi conduct ors. The vari at ion of r esi st ance ( R) of a
t hermi st er wi t h t emperat ure ( T) i s gi ven by
T
e Log
K
E
R Log R Log
e Log
KT
E
R Log R Log
sides the both on Log Taking e R R
g
g
KT
E
g
1
2
2
0
0
10
2
0
+ =
+ =
=
A pl ot of Log R ver sus 1/ T must be a st r ai ght l i n e w i t h sl ope
eV
KS
e Log
KS
E
J KS
Loge
KS
E
e Log
K
E
S
g
g
g
19
10 6 . 1
2 303 . 2 2
2 303 . 2
2
2
= =
= =
=
]
Resu l t : Energy gap of t he mat eri al gi ven semi conduct or i s,
g
E =..... eV
Obser vat i ons:
Lengt h of the di el ect ri c mat eri al = l = ......m
Breadt h of t he di el ect ri c mat eri al = b = .....m
Thi ckness of t he di el ect ri c mat er i al = d = .......m
Ar ea of t he di el ect ri c mat eri al , = = b l A ........m
2
Permi t ti vi t y of fr ee space = =
0
12
10 85 . 8

m F /
Fr om gr aph :
2 / 1
T = ......s
Di el ect ri c const ant of t he di el ect ri c
Mat eri al i s gi ven by=
AR
dT
K
0
6
2 / 1
693 . 0
10
=
K=
K=
Ti me
T
sec
R= .......D, C= ..... . F
Vol t age across Capaci t or ( V)
Charging Dischar ging
`
A
B
9. Diel ec t r ic Co nst ant
Ai m: To det ermine t he di el ect ri c const ant of t he di el ect ri c mat eri al of t he gi ven capaci t or by t he
met hod of charging and di schargi ng.
Appar at u s: Power supply, capaci t or, resi st or, vol t met er et c.
For mu l a: Di el ect ri c const ant of t he di el ect ri c mat eri al
AR
dT
K
0
6
2 / 1
693 . 0
10
=
Here d = Thi ckness of di el ect ri c mat eri al ( m)
T
= Ti me requir e for 50% charge or di scharge ( s)

A = area of t he di el ect ri c mat eri al ( m
2
)
= R Resi st ance of resi st or in seri es wi t h t he capaci t or ( )
Pr ocedur e: The t ermi nal s of t he capaci t or are short ed using a wi re t o remove t he charges t hat
ar e al ready st ored.
Char gi ng mode: Ci rcui t connect ions are made as shown in t he fi gure. The volt age across t he
capaci t or for t i me T= 0 i s not ed as zero. The Toggle swi t ch i s cl osed t o posi ti on A t o i nit i at e
chargi ng of t he capaci t or and si mul t aneousl y a t i mer i s st art ed. The vol t age ( V) across t he
capaci t or i s not ed for ever y 5 second until t he vol t age across t he capaci t or becomes al most
const ant . The readi ngs are t abul at ed.
Di schar gi n g mode: The st op- cl ock i s reset t o zero. The vol t age across t he capacit or
corr esponding t o t i me T= 0 i s not ed. Now t he t oggl e swi t ch i s closed t o posi tion B t o i nit i at e
di schargi ng of t he capaci t or and si mul t aneousl y t he t imer i s st art ed. The vol t age ( V) across t he
capaci t or i s not ed for ever y 5 second until t he vol t age across t he capaci t or becomes al most
const ant . The readi ngs are t abul at ed.
A plot of Vol t age ( V) agai nst Ti me ( T) is made on t he same gr aph for bot h chargi ng and
di schargi ng of the capaci t or. Two int ersect i ng curves are obt ai ned as shown in the fi gure. The
t i me corr espondi ng to t he i nt ersect i on of t he curves call ed T
i s det ermi ned. I t i s the t i me

requi red t o charge a capaci t or t o a val ue hal f t he maxi mum amount of charge. Gi ven t he
l ength ( l) and breadt h ( b) of t he di el ect ri c mat eri al t he area ( A) is calcul at ed. Gi ven its
t hi ckness ( T) , the diel ect ri c const ant of t he mat eri al of t he gi ven capaci t or i s cal cul at ed using
t he for mul a
AR
dT
K
0
2
1
693 . 0
=
Resu l t : Di el ect ri c const ant of the di el ect ri c mat eri al i s, = K
Obser vat i on:
Vert i cal gain set i n CRO= S
V
= V/ cm
OC ( H coordinat e of poi nt C) =
Hori zont al Vert i cal gain set in CRO = S
H
= V/ cm
OB (B co- or dinat e of point B) =
Lengt h of t he coil = L= 0.033 m, Number of t urns= 300, P= 65
Area of t he Hyst eresi s loop = A = .........sq. cm
Ener gy Loss= A S S
L P
N
E
H v
5 . 0
= = J/ cycl e/ m
3
Coer ci ve fi el d =
( )
1
= = m turns A
L P
S OC N
H
H
C
Remnant I nduct i on= ( )
2
0
5 . 0

= = m Wb S OB B
V
Point H B
A
B
C
D
E
F `
A
G
F
B
C
E
I
D
B
H
10. B-H Cur ve
Ai m: To study Hyst eresi s pr opert y of t he gi ven magnet i c mat er i al and hence t o det er mi ne a)
Ener gy loss / cycl e/ uni t volume b) Remnant Flux Densi t y and c) Coerci ve Fi eld St rengt h.
Appar at u s: Speci men, B- H Curve t r acer uni t , Cat hode Ray Oscil loscope ( CRO) .
For mu l a:
Energy loss i s det ermi ned usi ng t he formul a A S S
L P
N
E
H v
5 . 0
= J/ per cycl e/ uni t volume,
Where N i s the Number of t urns in t he coi l ( 300) , P i s the resi st ance i n seri es wi t h t he coil
( 65) , L = Lengt h of the coil ( 0.033m) and S
H
and S
V
are t he hori zont al , vert i cal sensi ti vi ti es
of the CRO and A= Area of t he l oop.
The Coerci ve fi el d i s det er mi ned from t he formula
( )
1
= m turns A
L P
S OC N
H
H
C
The Remnant fl ux densit y = ( )
2
0
5 . 0

= m Wb S OB B
V
Pr ocedur e: I ni ti all y t he following set t i ngs are made for CRO. The CRO i s swi t ched on and i s set
t o X- Y mode. The bri ght spot i s adj ust ed t o t he cent re of t he di spl ay wi t h t he hel p of Hori zont al
and Vert i cal shi ft knobs. Bot h t he channel s ( X- Channel ( Hori zont al , CH1) and Y- Channel
( Vert i cal, CH2 ) are set t o AC mode.
One t ermi nal of t he magnet i zing coil i s connect ed t o point C of t he mai n uni t and t he ot her
t er minal t o any of t he poi nt bet ween V
1
t o V
3
( V
3
i s recommended) . Out put s X & Y of t he main
uni t are connect ed r espect ivel y t o CH1 & CH2 of t he CRO. I C probe and t he Supply ( P.S) are
connect ed t o t he main ki t . The main ki t is swi t ched on. The resist ance ( P) is set f or maximum
value wi t h the hel p of t he gi ven knob. Wi t h no speci men, t he hori zont al gain of t he C R O is
adj ust ed unt i l a conveni ent X defl ect ion i s obt ai ned on t he CRO di spl ay. Speci men i s i nsert ed
t hrough the coi l such t hat i t t ouches only t he probe at t he cent r e not t he conduct i ng t racks.
The Y gai n of t he CRO i s adj ust ed t o get appr opri at e Loop. Trace t he l oop on t he gr aph paper
by readi ng coordinat es of t he point s A, B, C, D, E, F on t he loop i n CRO and area of t he loop i s
measured.
a) Energy loss i s det ermi ned usi ng t he for mul a A S S
L P
N
E
H v
5 . 0
= J/ per cycl e/ uni t
vol ume,
b) OC i s measured from t he graph. The Coerci ve fiel d i s det ermi ned from t he formula
( )
1
= m turns A
L P
S OC N
H
H
C
c) OB i s measur ed fr om t he graph. The Remnant flux densi t y i s det er mi ned usi ng t he
f or mula
( )
2
0
5 . 0

= m Wb S OB B
V
Resu l t : The Energy l oss in t he speci men= .........J/ cycl e/ cubi c met er
The Remnant I nduct i on= .......Wb m
- 2
The Coerci ve fiel d = .......A turns m
- 2
Obser vat i on:
First Order
on left
First Order
on righ t
Second order
on right
Second order
on left
Central
slit image
Standing wave
acting like diffraction
grating
Incident Na light
R2L R1L R1R R2R
diffraction angle
Central 0th order
1
2
3
1
2
3
Left
Right
Wavel engt h of t he sodi um li ght =
o
A 5893
Fr equency of t he ul t rasound =
Wavel engt h of ult rasound, m
n
sin
'
=
=
Vel oci t y of ult r asound,
'
f V = ms
- 1
=
Li quid
Spect r al
Order
( n)
Spect romet er
reading( deg)
Angular
separ at i on
20
n
Angl e of
di ffract ion
0
n
Wavel engt h
A ( m)
Ul t ra sound
Veloci t y
( m/ sec)
R
nL
R
nR
H
2
O
2
1
CCl
4
2
1
1 1. Ul t r aso nic Int er f er o met er
Ai m: To det ermi ne t he vel oci t y of ul t rasoni c waves i n t he gi ven l iqui d.
Appar at u s: Spect romet er, aqua gr at i ng, a quart z cryst al , hi gh volt age high frequency si ne
wave t ransmi t t er, Carbon t et ra chl ori de ( CCl
4
) or dri nking wat er and sodi um vapor l ight .
For mu l a:
'
f V = m/ sec Where V Veloci t y of t he ul t rasound in li quid ( m/ sec)
f Frequency of t he ul t rasound wave ( Hert z) .
'
Wavel engt h of ult rasound wave ( m) .
m
n
sin
'
= Where n Order of t he spect rum
Wavel engt h of sodium l ight ( m)
Angl e of di ffract i on ( deg)
Pr ocedur e: Prel i minary adj ust ment s ar e done for t he spect romet er. The spect romet er i s
pl aced i n front of t he sodi um vapor l amp. The spect r omet er posi ti on i s so adj ust ed t hat t he
colli mat or sli t i s il luminat ed wi t h sodi um li ght and i s confirmed by vi ewi ng t he sli t t hrough t he
coll i mat or. The t el escope i s br ought in l ine wi t h t he coll imat or. The rack and pinion arrangement
of t he col li mat or i s adj ust ed unt il cl ear image of t he sli t i s seen t hr ough t he t elescope. The Aqua
grat i ng i s mount ed on t he grat i ng t abl e. The t ransmi t t er out put i s connect ed t o t he cr yst al using
D-t ype connect or pr ovided along wi th t he experi ment al set up.. The fr equency i s t uned t o get
t he di ff ract i on bands. The Aqua gr at i ng i s set t o t he mi nimum devi at ion position. The cent ral
bri ght maximum, fi rst order dif fract i on band on t he l ef t si de ( R
1L
) , fi rst order dif fract ion band on
t he ri ght si de ( R
1R
) , second order diff ract ion band on t he lef t side ( R
2L
) , second order di ffract ion
band on t he ri ght si de ( R
2R
) are ident i fied i n t he di ffr act ion pat t ern. The vert i cal cross wi re i s set
on t he second order dif f ract i on band on t he l eft si de ( R
2L
) as shown i n fi gure and t he
spect romet er readi ng i s not ed. Si mil arl y spect romet er readi ngs for t he first order diffract i on
band on t he l eft side ( R
1L
) , fi rst order ( R
1R
) and second order ( R
2R
) diff ract ion bands on right
si de ar e not ed. The angul ar separat ion for t he second order spect r al l ine i s cal cul at ed usi ng t he
equat i on 2
2
= R
2R
- R
2L
. Wave l engt h of t he ul t ra sound i s cal cul at ed using t he equat ion
=
2
sin
m
Vel oci t y of ul t rasound i s cal cul at ed usi ng equat i on V = f m/ s. Similarly t he velocit y of the
ul t rasound for the first order spect r al li ne can be cal cul at ed usi ng t he angul ar separ at ion
1
=
R
1R
- R
1L
and wavel engt h.
Resu l t : Veloci t y of ul t rasoni c sound = V= ___________ ms
- 1
.
Sampl e Viva-Vo c e Quest io ns
1. DIFFRACTION GRATING
2. Defi ne l east count of a measuring inst rument ?
3. What i s diffr act i on? Ment ion different t ypes of diffr act i on.
4. Ment ion t he di fference bet ween di ffr act i on and int erference.
5. What i s t he const rai nt on t he di mension of t he obst acl e or sli t t o diff ract li ght ?
6. What i s diff ract i on grat i ng?
7. What i s meant by grat i ng const ant ?
8. Defi ne wavel engt h?
9. Defi ne spect rum? What i s a spect romet er?
10. What are t he component s of t he spect romet er ?
11. Expl ain t he funct i on of colli mat or and t el escope in a spect romet er ?
12. Expl ain why t he grat i ng i s set t o mini mum devi at ion posi tion before t aking readings?
13. Di stingui sh bet ween spect rum due t o di f fract i on gr at i ng and pri sm.
14. Can we use t he opt i cal grat ing for t he di ffract i on of X- Rays?
14. What i s meant by order of t he spect rum?
15. Whi ch t ype of di ffract i on i s used for t hi s experi ment ?
16. I s i t possi bl e t o det er mi ne t he wavel engt h of monochromat i c radi at ion same t echnique?
2. TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
1. What i s t ransi st or?
2. What are t he r egions ( layers) pr esent in t ransi st or?
3. Ment i on t he t ypes of t ransi st or.
4. What does t he arrow i n t he t ransi st or symbol indi cate?
5. Expl ain t he diff erent configurat ions of a t ransi st or?
6. Expl ain t he I nput , out put and Transfer char act er i sti cs of a t ransi st or .
7. Why t he common emi t t er confi gurat ion used t o study t he char act eri st i cs of t ransi st or?
8. Def ine Biasing?
9. What i s bi asi ng rul e of t ransi st or?
10. What t ype of devi ce i s a t ransi st or?
11. Expl ain t he rol e of load li ne i n a t ransi st or ci rcui ts.
10. What ar e t he appl i cat ions of t ransi st or?
11. Define and of a t ransi st or.
12. What i s t he meani ng = 0.99 for a t ransi st or?
3. V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE
1. What i s a semiconduct or?
2. What are val ance band and conduct i on band?
3. Defi ne energy gap?
4. Expl ain t he t ypes of semi conduct or s.
5. What i s doping. What are t he advant ages of dopi ng.
6. What i s barri er pot enti al ?
7. What i s depl et i on regi on?
8. What are t he t ypes of bi asi ng?
9. What i s zener diode?
10. Compare Junct i on diode and Zener diode?
10. What i s breakdown volt age?
11. Expl ai n aval anche and zener break down mechani sms?
12. What i s t he si gnifi cance of Breakdown vol t age?
13. What ar e t he appl i cat ions of zener diode?
4. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
1. What are di el ect ri c mat er i al s? Defi ne di el ect ri c const ant of a mat eri al .
2. What i s t he Physi cal meani ng of Di el ect ri c const ant ?
3. Defi ne Pol ari zat ion. What are di ff erent mechani sms of Pol ari zat ion?
4. Name some of t he Di el ect ri c mat eri al s? Ment ion i t s uses?
5. What i s a capaci t or? Ment ion t he differ ent t ypes of capaci t ors?
6. Ment i on t he t ype of capaci t or used in the experi ment .
7. Expl ain t he t erm T
8. What i s t he rol e of t he resi st or in t he ci rcui t ?
9. Defi ne Far ad.
5. FERMI ENERGY
1. What i s Fermi ener gy?
2. Defi ne absol ut e t emper at ure?
3. Why resi st ance increases as a funct ion of t emperat ure?
4. Why does t he gal vanomet er show zero defl ect i on at bal ancing l ength?
5. Defi ne el ect ron vol t .
6. What i s Fermi f act or ?
7. How does Fermi energy vary in dif ferent t ypes of semi conduct ors?
8. How does bal anci ng l engt h vary as a f uncti on of t emperat ure and why?
9. What i s meant by Fer mi t emperat ure?
10. What are t he f act or s on whi ch Fermi energy depend?
6. SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUITS
1. What i s an i nduct or?
2. Defi ne resi st ance?
3. Defi ne i s i mpedance, I nduct i ve react ance and capaciti ve react ance.
4. Defi ne i s i mpedance offered by induct ance in an AC ci rcui t ?
5. Defi ne i s i mpedance off ered by capaci t ance in an AC ci rcui t ?
6. Expl ain accept or and rej ect er ci rcui t s?
7. Expl ain resonance in el ect ri cal ci rcui t s.
8. Defi ne t he nat ural frequency of an LCR ci rcui t .
9. What i s t he t ot al i mpedance i n LCR cir cui t ? How does i t vary wi t h fr equency in case of
bot h Seri es and Paral l el LCR ci rcui t s.
10. What i s pot enti al difference across t he r esi st or at resonance?
11. Defi ne Q fact or . Enumerat e i t s i mport ance.
11. Defi ne bandwi dt h?
11. What ar e t he condi tions for resonance in t he case of parall el resonance ci rcui t ?
14. What ar e t he appli cat ions of LCR resonant cir cui t s?
7. PLANKS CONSTANT
1. What i s LED?
2. How does LED emi t t he l ight ?
3. Why does LED emit t he l ight in forward bi as only?
4. What i s knee vol t age?
5. What i s t urn- on Vol t age? Descri be i t s use i n det ermi ning t he energy of t he radi ati on
emi t t ed by t he LED?
6. Why does knee vol t age di fferent for different col or LED?
7. How does Knee vol t age var y wi t h wavel engt h?
8. Expl ain Pl ancks radi at i on l aw.
9. Descri be t he i mport ance of Pl ancks const ant .
10. Expl ain t he princi pl e of t he exper i ment .
8 . ENERGY GAP OF A THERMISTOR
1. What i s semi conduct or?
2. What i s Ther mi st or?
3. What i s posi ti ve t emper at ure coeff i ci ent ?
4. What i s energy gap?
5. Defi ne absol ut e t emper at ure?
6. Expl ain t he vari at i on of resi st ance of a semi conduct or wi th t emper at ur e.
7. How do you di fferenti at e bet ween a conduct or, semi conduct or and an insul at or based on
band t heory of solids?
10. What ar e int ri nsi c and ext ri nsi c semi conduct ors?
11. What do you mean by doping?
12. What ar e N- t ype and P- t ype semi conduct ors?
9 . STEFANS LAW
1. What i s a bl ack body?
2. Defi ne emi ssi ve power and absorpt i ve power of a bl ackbody?
3. St at e St efans l aw.
4. Def ine r adiat ion?
5. What i s a perfect bl ack body?
6. I dent i fy t he bl ackbody in t hi s experi ment ? Gi ve reason.
7. Explain t he di st ri buti on of energy i n a bl ack body radi at i on spect rum.
8. Defi ne resi st ance and power.
9. Explain t he veri fi cat ion of St ef ans l aw.
10.B.H.CURVE
1. What i s magnet i c fiel d?
2. Defi ne magnet i zing force ( H) ?
3. Defi ne magnet i c induct i on ( B) ?
4. Defi ne Tesl a
5. Defi ne Magnet i c Hyst er esi s?
6. Ment i on t he t ypes of magnet i c mat eri al s
7. What i s Coerci vi t y?
8. What i s Ret ent i vi t y?
9. What i s rel at i ve per meabil i t y?
10. What i s Hyst eri si s loss?
11. What i s rel at i ve per meabil i t y?
12. What i s magnet i c suscept i bil it y?
13. Di stingui sh Hard and Sof t Magnet i c Mat eri al s.

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En g i n eer i n g Ph ysi c s Labo r at or y Man ual

For B.E. I/ II Semest er

: wavel engt h of the spect ral line ( m)

= Ti me requir e for 50% charge or di scharge ( s)

i s det ermi ned. I t i s the t i me

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