VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)

Ground station oriented to magnetic north, transmitting directional information to aircraft Benefits
More accurate, precise flying Reliable Not susceptible to interference Voice Capable

Errors/Negatives
Costly to maintain Line-of-sight

VOR
Omnidirectional reference signal Directional signal from antenna rotating @ 1800 rpm Receiver uses phase discrimination Navigation in polar Distance Measuring coordinates (rho-theta) Equipment (DME) & often Tacan are colocated with VOR

VOR Capabilities
VHF 108.0-117.95mhz
Line of sight

1 LOP at a time
2 receivers give 2 LOPs (fix) VOR + DME = LOP & Arc (fix)

Not sensitive to aircraft heading Fly to or from a VOR or intercept a radial

Radial courses oriented FROM the station

VOR Types
High
1,000 14,500; 40NM 14,500 18,000; 100NM 18,000 45,000; 130NM 45,000 60,000; 100NM

Low
1,000 18,000; 40NM

Terminal
1,000 12,000; 25NM * All altitudes AGL

VOR Types

The Principle of the VOR

360 315 045 Magnetic North

135
270 090

225

135

180

VOR receiver gives 1 LOP called a Radial

Parts of a VOR system

Receiver Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) To/From ind.

Omni bearing selector

VHF Omnirange

VHF Omnirange

VHF Omnirange

Flying the VOR

Initial Tracking
Tune, Identify, Twist Turn OBS to center needle and figure out position (use FROM) Note heading on top of card
If flying FROM station (radial), then turn to that heading If flying TO station, put reciprocal heading on top and center, then turn to that heading

Flying the VOR

Wind Correction
Further away, more correction is needed to get back on track
At 60NM from station, 1 = 1NM

Generally, when within 20NM, 20-30 in direction of needle works Once needle centers, turn back towards original heading, but add wind correction of 5

Flying the VOR

Station Passage
CDI will become very sensitive, and then begin to oscillate Flag will switch from TO/OFF/FROM

Switching Radials
During station passage, turn OBS to new course to fly

Flying the VOR

Intercepting
If needle is alive, then turn towards it as if you were tracking it If full deflection, first center needle to find what radial you are on Twist OBS back to desired course Parallel that course Turn 30-60 in direction of needle, depending on distance from station Once needle is alive, turn back in direction of desired course Follow tracking procedures

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Radio signal sent out from aircraft to ground station. Ground station interprets this signal and sends back. Equipment in aircraft measures time and converts to nautical miles. Errors
Diagonal (slant-line) distance from station to aircraft not lateral
Becomes greater the closer you get to the station Greatest when directly over station at high altitudes Limited number of queries Intersections/Fixes IAP Groundspeed

Uses

Types of Navigation Systems

Pilotage Dead Reckoning Radio Navigation
ADF VOR/DME/RNAV

Electronic Navigation
Loran GPS Inertial

Celestial

Area Navigation (RNAV)

Generic name for a system that permits point-to-point flight
Onboard computer that computes a position, track, and groundspeed VOR/DME Loran GPS Inertial

LOng RAnge Navigation (LORAN)

Collection of antennas throughout the United States transmit signals Aircraft receiver calculates position based on intersection of multiple signals

Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS = Global Positioning System
A space based, all-weather, jam resistant, continuous operation, worldwide radio navigation system.

Provides extremely accurate 3D location data as well as velocity and time.

GPS
System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in view at all times Receiver uses 4 of these to determine position of aircraft Each satellite transmits code, which contains satellite position and GPS time Receiver, knowing how fast signal was sent and at what time, calculates position

GPS Glossary
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
Determines if satellites are providing correct data

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System

Collection of ground receivers take satellite data and correct it for atmospheric conditions Works based on known position of ground stations

LAAS Local Area Augmentation System

Same as WAAS, but on a smaller, more precise scale For terminal area around airport

LOP 1 Sphere
Single range can lie anywhere on a sphere
R1

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

LOP 2 Spheres
Two ranges will intersect on a line, defined by the intersection of two spheres

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

LOP 3 Spheres
Three spheres intersect at a point Three ranges needed to resolve lat/long/altitude

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

GPS Uses
Civilian Uses Marine Navigation Air Navigation Surveying Search and Rescue Collision avoidance Agriculture Military Uses Marine Navigation Air Navigation Rendezvous Close Air Support Mine Warfare Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

Inertial Navigation System

Dead-Reckoning Self-contained source of:
Position, groundspeed, & heading Does not even need a receiver

Cannot be jammed Gets better with use

Applies a calibration correction after each flight

Primitive Accelerometer
M No Acceleration
0 Acceleration

M
0 X

Acceleration from the right

F = kx = ma

a = kx/m

Inertial Navigation Principles

s(t ) a (t )dt

Acceleration is vectorially summed in x, y, & z.

Output is compensated movement of the platform & for curvature & rotation of the earth.

Inertial Navigation Systems

Early systems required precise mechanical parts
Bigger is more accurate

Modern systems can be:

Mechanical (platform)
Simple gyros Accurate

Electronic (strapdown)
Few moving parts Smaller Cheaper

Inertial Navigation Systems

Aircraft systems use
Pendulum accelerometers or MEMS
Micro-electromechanical sensors

Ring laser gyros

To measure angular change

INS complements GPS

Mechanical

Ring Laser Gyro

Types of Navigation Systems

Pilotage Dead Reckoning Radio Navigation
ADF VOR/DME/RNAV

Electronic Navigation
Loran GPS Inertial

Celestial

Celestial Navigation
Advantages No power required Self contained Cannot be jammed Available everywhere Disadvantages Dusk & dawn only Clear weather only Slow for aircraft Needs the art of nav.
Navigators skill

Requires computation
At least data entry

Circle of Equal Altitude

DeRemer & McLean Global Navigation

Types of Errors
Error increases with distance
VOR/DME, ADF

Error increases with time

DR, Inertial

Reliability Concerns
GPS, Loran, Celestial

Human error

Which Types of Navigation are Important to a Student Pilot?

1. Pilotage 2. Dead Reckoning 3. Radio Navigation
ADF VOR/DME/RNAV

4. Celestial 5. Electronic Navigation

Loran GPS Inertial

If Something Seems Wrong, it Probably is!

Be suspicious. Check and recheck. If you cannot tell your passengers your ETA at the destination, you are not navigating.

What can you do if youre lost?

Assume youre near your DR position
Do not assume a huge wind just came up

Use your VOR/DME or 2 VORs Look on the chart for landmarks

Especially those that are shown small

If you miss a checkpoint, hold your heading & look for the next one Do not guess where you are! If all else fails, CALL ATC (after all, YOU are paying for it)